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3. Verbs formed from nouns by changing a final sonant

into its corresponding surd; as

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Some of the words thus modified are of foreign origin, as use (uze) from use (pr. uce); greaze from grease, and prize from price.

CHAPTER XVII.

ADVERBS.

§ 353. THAT adverbs are formed by means of composition was shown when the nature of the termination -ly was explained. It will be shown in the sequel that they may also originate in Derivation, especially in Inflection.

That they are susceptible of the Degrees of Comparison has been seen.

§ 354. Certain forms in -ing now remain for notice In such an expression as―

The candle went out, and so we went darkling.—King Lear.

the last word is no participle of a verb darkle, but an

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adverb of derivation, like unwaringún unawares, Old High-German; stillenge secretly, Middle High-German; blindlings = blindly, New High-German; darnungo secretly; Old Saxon; nichtinge=by night, Middle Dutch; blindelind = blindly, New Dutch; bæclinga backwards; handlunga = hand to hand, Anglo-Saxon; and, finally, blindlins, backlins, darklins, middlins, scantlins, stridelins, stowlins, in Lowland Scotch.

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§ 355. Certain Adverbs of Place. It is a common practice for languages to express by different modifications. of the same root the idea

(1.) Of rest in a place.

(2.) Of motion towards a place.

(3.) Of motion from a place.

It is also a common practice of language to depart from the original expression of each particular idea, and to interchange the signs by which they are expressed.

This may be seen in the following table, illustrative of the forms here, hither, hence.

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there, thither, thence.
here, hither, hence.

where, whither, whence.
there, thither, thence.
here, hither, hence.
where, whither, whence.
there, thither, thence.
here, hither, hence.
there, thither, thence.
where, whither, whence.
here, hither, hence.
there, thither, thence.
where, whither, whence.
here, hither, hence.
there, thither, thence.
where, whither, whence.
here, hither, hence.
there, thither, thence.
where, whither, whence.
here, hither, hence.

These local terminations were commoner in the earlier stages of language than at present. The following are from the Moso-Gothic:

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A reason for the comparative frequency of these forms in Moso-Gothic lies in the fact of the Gospel of Ulphilas being a translation from the Greek. The Greek forms in -θεν, ἔσωθεν, ἔξωθεν, ἄνωθεν, πόῤῥωθεν, πάντοθεν, were just the forms to encourage such a formation as that in -pro.

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§ 356. Yonder.-In the Moso-Gothic we have the following forms: jáinar, jáind, jáinþró illic, illuc, illinc. They do not, however, explain the form yon-d-er. It is not clear whether the d the -d in jáind, or the p in júin þró.

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§ 357. Anon, as used by Shakespear and others in the sense of presently. The probable history of this word is as follows:-the first syllable contains a root akin to the root yon, signifying distance in place. The second is a shortened form of the Old High-German and Middle High-German -nt, a termination expressive (1) of removal in space; (2) of removal in time: Old High-German, ënont ënnont; Middle High-German, ënentlig, jenunt = beyond. The transition from the idea of place to that of time is shown in the Old High-German, nähunt, and the Middle High-German, vërnent lately; the first from the root nigh, the latter from the root far. The Scotch anent is a word of this class.

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§ 358. Where, when, &c.—A certain class of Adverbs were once cases. Thus,―

Where, there, and here were the Datives Feminine Singular of who, that, and he, meaning in what direction,

in that direction, in this direction, = quá, and illâ, hâc

regione.

When and then were Accusatives Masculine at that, time.

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The, in such expressions as all the more, all the better, was an Instrumental =eo plus, eo melius. It arose out of þy, and was a different word from the the Definite Article, of which the A. S. form was pe, its the is to this, so is why = quâ ratione, to who. These may be called disguised cases.

CHAPTER XVIII.

INFLECTION.-DECLENSION. OF NOUNS..

-OF VERBS.

§ 359. INFLECTION now comes under notice. It is a peculiar kind of Derivation; of Derivation rather than Composition. It is, however, by no means, certain that a definition could be framed so as to exclude all Compounds without inconvenience. The word father-s, whether taken as a Possessive Case or as a Nominative Plural, is a good sample of Inflection. The addition to the main word is the sound expressed by the single letter -s. That this is not a whole word is evident. By going back, however, to the Anglo-Saxon period we find that it was preceded by a vowel-e or a, as the case might be. Now, though this gives us a syllable, the affix is as far from being a separate and independent word as ever: and, hence, it belongs to derivation rather than composition. But what if it be both possible, and probable, that all derivation was once composition, just as all composition was, originally, the juxtaposition of separate words? For most purposes, however, composition and derivation are

totally different; and, for most purposes, Inflection is a peculiar kind of Derivation. It (Inflection) falls into (1) Declension, and (2) Conjugation.

§ 360. Declension, when fully developed, as it is in the Latin, Greek, and other languages, and as it is not developed in the English, gives (1) Gender, (2) Number, (3) and Case.

§ 361. Conjugation, in like manner, and when similiarly developed, gives (1) Voice, (2) Mood, (3) Tense, (4) Person. These are called the Accidents of the Inflected Parts of Speech. The Inflected Parts of Speech being (1) the Noun, (2) the Verb.

§362. Nouns are (1) Pronouns, (2) Substantives, (3) Adjectives. Participles are, in some respects, Adjectives in other Verbs.

To give precedence to the Pronoun over the Substantive and Adjective is unusual. The step, however, will be justified as we proceed.

They

Adverbs, as may be seen by what has preceded, inasmuch as they can take the Degrees of Comparison, are susceptible of Derivation, not, however, of Inflection. Particles are wholly incapable of Derivation. may arise out of Inflection; but they are not themselves inflected. Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections, are Particles. So are the words Yes and No; and in some languages, the words expressive of Interrogation.

The Copula am, art, is, was, be, &c., has certain peculiarities which may give it a claim to be considered as a separate part of speech. It is generally, however, and not inconveniently, treated as a Verb; being called the Verb Substantive.

The Cardinal Numerals, also, have certain peculiarities. The Article is, in origin, a Pronoun; but, as it has no existence except when connected with a Noun, it is, to a certain extent, an Inflection.

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