Construction of sentences. The Syntax of a language is always regulated by its Etymology; so that in those languages where the signs of Gender, Number, Case, Person, Tense, and Mood are numerous, the Syntax is complex. On the other hand, where the Etymology is simple the Syntax is of moderate dimensions. § 489. In Etymology we Decline and Conjugate; in Syntax we Parse. Parsing is of two kinds; Logical and Etymological. Logical Parsing gives the analysis of sentences according to their Terms and Copulas, telling us which is the Subject and which the Predicate, which the chief, and which the secondary, parts of each. Etymological Parsing gives the analysis of sentences according to the Parts of Speech of which they are composed. It tells us which is the Noun, and which the Verb, &c. It separates Adjectives from Substantives, Pronouns from Adverbs, and the like. It deals with Numbers, Cases, Persons, &c. § 490. Speech chiefly consists of (1) commands, (2) questions, and (3) statements. The combination of words by which these are effected is called a Proposition. There are three kinds of Propositions; one to express commands, one to express questions, and one to express statements. Propositions which convey commands are called Imperative, as do this, do not delay, walk. Propositions which convey questions are called Interrogative, as-what is this? who are you? Is it here? Propositions which convey statements are called Declaratory, as summer is coming, I am here, this is he. Sentences like may you be happy are called Optative, from the Latin word opto = I wish. By more than one good authority, they are placed in a class by themselves as a fourth species of proposition. And it cannot be denied that they are expressions of a peculiar character. Would I could is also optative, meaning I wish I could, or more fully, I wish Such being the case, we have two propositions conThere is the omission of the veyed by three words. conjunction that; and (more remarkable) that of the personal pronoun as well. Sentences like how well you look convey an exclamation of surprise, and have been called Exclamatory. Optative Propositions are, to a certain extent, Imperative, and, to a certain extent, Declaratory. In may you be happy, change the place of may and you, and the result is an ordinary assertion, you may be happy. On the other hand, you be happy, is a command. There is no com mand, however, without a real or supposed wish on the part of the speaker. Exclamatory Propositions are, to a certain extent, Interrogative, and to a certain extent, Declaratory. In how well you look, change the place of the essential parts, and the result is an ordinary assertion, you look well. Meanwhile, how indicates the degree or extent of your well-looking. But it only indicates it. The degree itself is undefined; and (as such) the possible object of a question. How do you look? is an actual Interrogation. Besides being Imperative, Interrogative or Declaratory, Propositions are either Affirmative or Negative.— Summer is early-summer is not early. § 491. In respect to their structure Propositions consist of Terms and Copulas. Terms are of two kinds, Subjects and Predicates. The Subject is the term by which we indicate the person or thing concerning which the statement is made or the question asked. In Imperative Propositions it denotes the person to whom the command is given. Thus :Summer is coming-what is this-make [thou] haste. The Predicate is the term by which we express what we declare, ask, or command. There is no Subject without its corresponding Predicate; no Predicate without its corresponding Subject; and without both a Subject and Predicate there is no such thing as a Proposition. Without Propositions there are no Questions, Commands, or Declarations; and without these, there would scarcely be such a thing as Language. The little which there would be would consist merely of exclamations like Oh! Ah! Pish, &c. § 492. The simplest sentences are those which consist of single simple propositions; as Sentences like The sun is shining. The sun is bright. The sun and moon are shining; The sun and moon are shining bright, are anything but simple; for although, when we consider them merely as sentences, they are both short and clear, they each consist of two propositions, as will be stated again. § 493. The simplest propositions are those that consist of the simplest terms; as Fire is burning, I am glad, and the like; wherein the number of words is threethree and no more; one for the Subject, one for the Predicate, and one for the Copula. § 494. The shortest propositions are not always the simplest. When each word represents either a term or a copula, their grammatical elements coincide accurately with their logical, as was the case with the preceding examples. When, however, these contain fewer than three words, it is clear that either something must be supplied or that a term and copula are combined in the same word; as is the case with such expressions as Fire burns, where comes and burns are both Predicate and Copula at once. § 495. The simplest propositions, then, are those that consist of what are called single-worded terms. Most terms, however, are many-worded. If it were not so, what would become of those words which, though incapable by themselves of forming a name, are still used for forming a part of one-words like the, of and the like? Very simple propositions can easily be converted into their opposite; as may be seen by the following operations upon the words Fire is burning. 1. Prefix the definite article.-The fire. 2. Insert an adjective.—The bright fire. 3. Add an adverb.-The very bright fire. 4. Add a participle, and convert bright into its corresponding adverb. —The very brightly-burning fire. 5. Introduce a second substantive, showing its relations to the word fire by means of a preposition.—The very brightly-burning fire of wood. 6. Insert which after fire, followed by a secondary proposition.-The very brightly-burning fire which was made this morning of wood. 7. Add another secondary proposition relating to wood.—The very brightly-burning fire which was made this morning out of the wood which was brought from the country. 8. Add another secondary proposition by means of a conjunction.The very brightly-blazing fire which was made this morning out of the wood which was brought from the country, because there was a sale. It is clear that processes like this may be carried on ad infinitum, so that a sentence of any amount of complexity will be the result. Meanwhile, the Predicate may be made as many-worded as the Subject. Notwithstanding all this, the primary and fundamental portion of the term is manifestly the word fire. To this all the others are subordinate. In like manner, the following lines from the opening of the Paradise Lost, give us but a single term, of which the word fruit is the fundamental element. The fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, &c. § 496. The Part of Speech to which a word belongs is determined by the place that it takes in the structure of a Proposition. For instance,-words that can by themselves constitute terms are either Nouns or Pronouns ; words that can constitute both predicates and copulas, Verbs; words which can constitute but parts, or fractions of terms, Adverbs, Prepositions; and the like. § 497. In Declaratory Propositions the Subject precedes the Predicate. We say Fire is hot, rather than Hot is fire. § 498. In Interrogative Propositions the Predicate precedes the subject; as What is this? rather than This is what? § 499. In Imperative Propositions the name of the Subject is usually suppressed; e. g. we say, shut the door, instead of shut thou the door. § 500. Names are either Proper or Common. Proper names are appropriated to certain individual objects. Common names are applied to a whole class of objects. George, Mary, London, &c., designate one particular person or place. Man, father, town, horse, &c., represent objects of which there is a class or collection. § 501. Besides being either Proper or Common, names are either Invariable or Variable. § 502. The two most important terms in Syntax are |