crosses and gibbets, (cruces et patibula, Tac. Annal. xiv. 33.) and where also the bodies of slaves were burnt, Plaut. Cas. ii. 6. v. 2. or thrown out unburied, Por. Epod. v. 99.

Some think that the carnifex was anciently keeper of the prison under the Triumviri capitales, who had only the superintendence or care of it: hence tradere vel trahere ad carnificem, to imprison; Plaut. Rud. iii. 6. 19.

v.

LAWS of the ROMANS.

THE HE laws of any country are rules established by public authority, and enforced by sanctions, to direct the conduct, and secure the rights of its inhabitants. (LEX justi injustique regula, Senec. de benef. iv. 12. LEGES quid aliud sunt, quam minis mixta præcepta ? Id. Epist. 94.)

The laws of Rome were ordained by the people, upon the application of a magistrate, (rogante magistratu). See p. 95, 99.

The great foundation of Roman law or jurisprudence, (Romani juris), was that collection of laws called the law, Liv. xxxiv. 6. or laws of the Twelve Tables, compiled by the decemviri, and ratified by the people, (see p. 159.) a work, in the opinion of Cicero, superior to all the libraries of philosophers, (omnibus omnium philosophorum bibliothecis anteponendum), de Orat. i. 44. Nothing now remains of these laws but scattered fragments.

The unsettled state of the Roman government, the extension of the empire, the increase of riches, and consequently of the number of crimes, with various other circumstances, gave occasion to a great many new laws, (corruptissimâ republica plurimæ leges, Tacit. Annal. iii. 27.)

At first those ordinances only obtained the name of laws, which were made by the Comitia Centuriata, (POPULISCITA), Tacit. Annal. iii. 58. but afterwards, those also, which were made by the Comitia Tributa, (PLEBISCITA), when they were made binding on the whole Roman people; first by the Horatian law, (ut quod tributim plebes jussisset, populum teneret), Liv. iii. 55. and afterwards more precisely by the Publilian and Hortensian laws, (ut plebiscita OMNES QUIRITES tenerent) Liv. viii. 12. Epit. xi. Plin. xvi. 10. s. 15. Gell. xv. 27.

The different laws are distinguished by the name, (nomen gentis) of the persons who proposed them, and by the subject to which they refer.

Any order of the people was called LEX, whether it respected the public, (jus publicum vel sacrum), the right of private persons, (jus privatum vel civile), or the particular interest of an individual. But this last was properly called PRIVILEGIUM. Gell. x. 20. Ascon. in Cic. pro Mil.

The laws proposed by a consul were called CONSULARES, Cic. Sext. 64. by a tribune, TRIBUNITIÆ, Cic. in Rull. ii. 8. by the decemviri, DECEMVIRALES, Liv. iii. 55. 56. & 57.

Different Significations of JUS and LEX, and the Different SPECIES of the ROMAN LAW.

THE HE words, Jus and Lex are used in various senses. They are both expressed by the English word, LAW.

Jus properly implies what is just and right in itself, or what from any cause is binding upon us, Cic. de Offic. iii. 21. Lex is a written statute or ordinance: (LEX, quae scripto sancit, quod vult, aut jubendo, aut vetando, Cic. de legg. i. 6. a LEGENDO, quod legi solet, ut innotescat, Varro de Lat. ling. v. 7. legere leges propositas jussere, Liv. iii. 34. vel a delectu, Cic. de Legg. i. 6. a justo et jure legendo, i. e. eligendo, from the choice of what is just and right, Id. ii. 5. LEX, justorum injustorumquæ distinctio, ibid. Græco nomine appellata, Nouos, a suum cuique tribuendo, Id. i. 6.)

Jus is properly what the law ordains, or the obligation which 2 imposes; (est enim JUS quod LEX constituit, That is law, or, That is binding, which the law ordains, Cic. de legg. i. 15. ad Herenn. ii. 13.) Or, according to the Twelve Tables, QUODQUNQUE POPULUS JUSSIT, ID JUS ESTO, Liv. vii. 17. ix. 33. QUOD MAJOR PARS JUDICARIT, ID JUS RATUMQUE ESTO, Cic.

But jus and lex have a different meaning, according to the words with which they are joined: thus,

Jus NATURE vel NATURALE, is, what nature or right reason teaches to be right; and jus GENTIUM, what all nations esteemed to be right both commonly reckoned the same, Cic. Sext. 42. Harusp. resp. 14.

Jus civium vel CIVILE, is, what the inhabitants of a particular country esteem to be right, either by nature, custom, or statute, Cic. Topic. 5. Off. iii. 16. 17. de Orat. i. 48. Hence constituere jus, quo omnes utantur, pro Dom. cui subjecti sint, pro Cæcin. So jus Romanum, Anglicum, &c. When no word is added to restrict it, JUS CIVILE is put for the civil law of the Romans. Cicero sometimes opposes jus civile to jus naturale, Sext. 42. and sometimes to what we call Criminal law (jus publicum), Verr. i. 42. Cæcin. 2. in Cæcil. 5.

Jus COMMUNE, what is held to be right among men in general, or among the inhabitants of any country, Cic. Cacin. 4. Digest. et Institut

Jus PUBLICUM et PRIVATUM, what is right with respect to the people (quasi jus populicum), or the public at large, and with re

spect to individuals; political and eivil law, Liv. iii. 34. Cic. Fam. iv. 14. Plin. Epist. i. 22. But jus publicum is also put for the right which the citizens in common enjoyed, (jus commune), Terent. Phorm. ii. 2. 65.

Jus SENATORIUM, (pars juris publici), what related to the rights and customs of the senate; what was the power of those, who might make a motion in the senate; (que potestas referentibus), (see p. 27.) what the privilege of those, who delivered their opinion, (quid censentibus jus); what the power of the magistrates, and the rights of the rest of the members, &c. Plin. Ep.

viii. 14.

Jus DIVINUM et HUMANUM, what is right with respect to things divine and human, Liv. i. 18. xxxix. 16. Tacit. Annal. iii. 26. 70. vi. 26. Hence fas et jura sinunt, laws divine and human, Virg. G. i. 269. Contra jus fasque, Sall. Cat. 15. Jus fasque exuere, Tacit. Hist. iii. 5. Omne jus et fas delere, Cic. Quo jure, quave injuria, right or wrong, Terent. And. i. 3. 9. Per fas et nefas,. Liv. vi. 14. Jus et injuria, Sall. Jug. 16. Jure fieri, jure casus, Suet. Jul. 76.

Jus PRETORIUM, what the edicts of the prætor ordained to be right, Cic. de Offic. i. 10. Ver. i. 44.

Jus HONORARIUM. See p. 128.

Jus FLAVIANUM, ELIANUM, &c. the books of law composed by Flavius, Liv. ix. 46. Elius, &c. URBANUM, i. e. CIVILE privatum, ex quo jus dicit prætor urbanus, Cic. Verr. Act. i. 1.

Jus PREDIATORIUM. The law observed with respect to the goods (prædia vel prædia bona, Ascon. in Cic.) of those who were sureties (prædes) for the farmers of the public revenues, or undertakers of the public works, (mancipes), which were pledged to the public, (publico obligata vel pignori opposita), and sold if the farmer or undertaker did not perform his bargain, Cic. pro Balb. 20. Verr. i. 54. Fam. v. 20. Suet. Claud. 9. Hence PRÆDI▲TOR, a person who laid out his money in purchasing these goods, Cic. Att. xii. 14. 17. and who, of course, was well acquainted with what was right or wrong in such matters, (juris prædiatorii peritus), Id. Balb. 20.

Jus FECIALE, the law of arms or heraldry, Cic. Offic. i. 11. or the form of proclaiming war, Liv. i. 32.

Jus LEGITIMUM, the common or ordinary law, the same with jus civile, Cic. pro Dom. 13. 14. but jus legitimum exigere to demand one's legal right, or what is legally due, Fam. viii. 6.

Jus CONSUETUDINIS, what long use hath established, opposed to LEGE jus or jus scriptum, statute or written law, Cic. de Invent. ii. 22. 54. Jus civile constat aut ex scripto aut sine scripto, 1. 6. D. de justit, et jur..

Jus PONTIFICIUM vel SACRUM, what is right with regard to religion and sacred things, much the same with what was afterwards called Ecclesiastical Law, Cic. pro Dom. 12. 13. 14. de légibus, ii. 18. &c. Liv. i. 20. So Jus religionis, augurum cæremoniarum, auspiciorum, &c.

Jus BELLICUM vel BELLI, what may be justly done to a state at war with us, and to the conquered; Cas de bell. G. i. 27. Cic. Off. i. 11. iii. 29. Liv. i. 1. v. 27. Hence Leges silent inter* arma, Cic. in Mil. 4. Ferre jus in armis, Liv. v. 3. Facere jus ense, Lucan. iii. 821. viii. 642. ix. 1073. Jusque datum sceleri, a successful usurpation, by which impunity and a sanction were given to crimes, Id. i. 2.

JURIS disciplina, the knowledge of law, Cic. Legg. i. 5. intelligentia, Phil. ix. 5. interpretatio, Off. i. 11. STUDIOSI juris, i. e. jurisprudentia, Suet. Ner. 32. Gell. xii. 13. Consulti, periti, &c. Lawyers, Cic.

JURE et legibus, by common and statute law, Cic. Verr. i. 42. 44. So Horace, Vir bonis est quis? Qui consulta patrum, qui leges, juraque servat, &c. Epist. i. xvi. 40. Jura dabat legesque viris, Virg. Æn. i. 509.

But JURA is often put for laws in general; thus, Nova jura condere, Liv. iii. 33. JURA inventa metu injusti fateare necesse est, Horat. Sat. I. iii. 111. Arc. P. 122. 398. civica jura respondere, Ep. i. 3. 23.

Jus and EQUITAS are distinguished, Cic. Off. iii. 16. Virg. ii. 426. jus and justitia; jus civile and leges, Phil. ix. 5. So Equum et bonum, is opposed to callidum versutumque jus, an artful interpretation of a written law, Cacin. 23. Summum jus, the rigour of the law, summa injuria, Off. i. 11. Summo jure agere, contendere, experiri, &c. to try the utmost stretch of law.

Jus vel JUBA Quiritium, civium, &c. See p. 55, &c.

JURA sanguinis, cognationis, &c. necessitudo, v. jus necessitudinis, relationship, Suet. Calig. 26.

Jus regni, a right to the crown, Liv. i. 49. Honorum, to preferments, Tacit. xiv. 5. Quibus per fraudem jus fuit, power or authority, Sallust. Jug. 3. Jus luxuriæ publicæ datum est, a license, Senec. Epist. 18. Quibus fallere ac furari jus erat, Suet. Ner. 16. In jus et ditionem vel potestatem alicujus venire, concedere, Liv. & Sall. Habere jus in aliquem; sui juris esse ac mancipii, i. e. sui arbitrii et nemini parere, to be one's own master, Cic. In controverso jure est, it is a point of law not fixed or determined, Liv. iii. 55.

Jus dicere vel reddere, to administer justice. Dare jus gratiæ, to sacrifice justice to interest, Liv.

Jus is also put for the place where justice is administered;

thus, IN JUS EAMUs, i. e. ad prætoris sellam, Donat. in Ter. Phorm. v. 7. 43. & 88. In jure, i. e. apud prætorem, Plaut. Rud. iii. 6. 28. Men. iv. 2. 19. De jure currere, from court, Cic. Quint. 25.

LEX is often taken in the same general sense with Jus: thus, Lex est recta ratio imperandi atque prohibendi, a numine deorum tracta; justorum injustorumque distinctio; æternum quiddam, quod universum mundum regit ;-Consensio omnium gentium lex naturæ putanda est; non scripta, sed nata lex :-Salus populi suprema lex esto; fundamentum libertatis, fons equitatis, &c. Cic. de Legg.pro Cluent. 53.

LEGES is put, not only for the ordinances of the Roman people, but for any established regulations; thus, of the free towns, LEGES MUNICIPALES, Cic. Fam. vi. 18. of the allied towns, Verr. ii. 49. 50. of the provinces, ibid. 13.

When LEX is put absolutely, the law of the Twelve Tables is meant; as, LEGE hæreditas ad gentem Minuciam veniebat, Cic. Verr. i. 45. Ea ad nos redibat LEGE hæreditas, Ter. Hecyr. i. 2. 97. LEGES CENSORIE, forms of leases or regulations made by the censors, Cic. Verr. i. 55. iii. 7. Prov. Cons. 5. Rabir. Perd. 3. ad Q. Fr. i. 12. LEx mancipii vel mancipium, the form and condition of conveying property, de Orat. i. 39. Cic. Off. iii. 16.

LEGES venditionis, vel venalium vendendorum, agrum vel domum possidendi, &c. Rules or conditions, Cic. de Orat. i. 58. Horat. Epist. ii. 2. v. 18. Hence Emere, vendere hac vel illa lege, i. e. sub hac conditione vel pacto, Suet. Aug. 21. Ea lege (i. e. ex pacto et conventu) exierat, Cic. Att. vi. 3. Hac lege atque omine, Ter. And. i. 2. 29. Heaut. v. 5. 10. Lex vitæ, qua nati sumus, Cic. Tusc. 16. mea lege utar, I will observe my rule, Ter. Phorm. iii. 2. ult.

LEGES historiæ, poematum, versuum, &c. Rules observed in writing, Cic. de Legg. i. 1. de Orat. iii. 49. Thus we say, the laws of history, of poetry, versifying, &c. and in a similar sense, the laws of motion, magnetism, mechanics, &c,

In the Corpus Juris, LEx is put for the Christian religion; thus, LEX Christiana, Catholica, venerabilis, sanctissima, &c. But we in a similar sense use the word law for the Jewish religion; as the Law and the Gospel; or for the Books of Moses; as, the Law and the Prophets.

JUS ROMANUM, or Roman law, was either written or unwritten law, (Jus SCRIPTUM aut NON SCRIPTUM). The several species which constituted the jus scriptum, were, laws, properly so called, the decrees of the senate, the edicts or decisions of magistrates, and the opinions or writings of lawyers. Unwritten law, (jus non scriptum), comprehended natural equity and custom. An