The common people who lived in the country and cultivated the ground, were called PLEBS RUSTICA, Liv. xxxv. 1. Anciently the senators also did the same, Cic. de Sen. 16. but not so in after times, Liv. iii. 26. The common people who lived in the city, merchants, mechanics, &c. Cic. Off. i. 42. were called PLEBS URBANA, Sall. Cat. 37. Both are joined, Ib. Jug. 73.

The PLEBS RUSTICA was the most respectable, (optima et mo- 1 destissima, Cic. Rull. ii. 31. laudatissima, Plin. 18. 3.) The PLEBS URBANA was composed of the poorer citizens, many of whom followed no trade, but were supported by the public and private largesses, (eos publicum malum alebat; Sallust. Cat. 37.) In the latter ages of the republic an immense quantity of corn was annually distributed among them at the public expense, five bushels monthly to each man, Sallust. fragm. edit. Cortii. p. 974. Their principal business was to attend on the tribunes and popular magistrates in their assemblies; hence they were called TURBA FORENSIS, Liv. ix. 46, and from their venality and corruption, OPERE CONDUCTÆ vel mercenarii, in allusion to mercenary workmen, Cic. Sext. 17. & 27. Q. fratr, ii. 1. Att. i. 13. OPERÆ CONDUCTORUM, Sext. 50. MULTITUDO CONDUCTA. Phil. i. 9. CONCIONES CONDUCTA, Sext. 49 and 53. CONCIONALIS HIRUDO ærarii, misera ac jejuna PLEBECULA, Att. i. 16. FAEX ET SORDES URBIS, Ib. 13. URBANA et perdita PLEBS, Id. vii. 3.

Cicero often opposes the populace, (populus, plebs, multitudo, tenuiores, &c.) to the principal nobility, (principes delecti, Opti mates et Optimatium principes, honesti, boni, locupletes, &c.) Cic.

Sext. 48. 68. &c.

There were leading men among the populace, (duces multitu dinum,) kept in pay by the seditious magistrates, who used for hire to stimulate them to the most daring outrages, Sallust. Cat. 50. Cic. Sext. 37. 46. The turbulence of the common people of Rome, the natural effect of idleness and unbounded licentiousness, is justly reckoned among the chief causes of the ruin of the republic. Trade and manufactures being considered as servile employments, Sallust. Cat. 4. Dionys. ix. 25. they had no encouragement to industry; and the numerous spectacles which were exhibited, particularly the shows of gladiators, served to increase their natural ferocity. Hence they were always ready to join in any eonspiracy against the state, Sallust, Cat. 37.

OTHER DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE.

1. PATRONS AND CLIENTS; NOBILES, NOVI, AND IGNOBILES OPTIMATES AND POPULARES,

C

'THAT the patricians and plebeians might be connected together by the strictest bonds, Romulus ordained that every plebeian should choose from the patricians any one he pleased, as his PATRON or protector, whose CLIENT he was called, (quod eum colebat). It was the part of the Patron to advise and to defend his client, to assist him with his interest and substance; in short, to do every thing for him that a parent uses to do for his children. The Client was obliged to pay all kind of respect to his patron, and to serve him with his life and fortune in any extremity, Dionys. ii. 10.

It was unlawful for Patrons and Clients to accuse or bear witness against each other; and whoever was found to have acted otherwise, might be slain by any one with impunity, as a victim devoted to Pluto and the infernal gods. Hence both Patrons and Clients vied with one another in fidelity and observance, and, for more than 600 years, we find no dissentions between them, Ibid. Virgil joins to the crime of beating one's parent that of defrauding a client, Æn. vi. 605. It was esteem. ed highly honourable for a patrician to have numerous clients, both hereditary, and acquired by his own merit. Horat. Ep. ii. 1. 103. Juvenal. x. 44.

In after times, even cities and whole nations were under the protection of illustrious Roman families; As the Sicilians under the patronage of the Marcelli, Cic. in Cæcil. 4. Verr. iii. 18. Cyprus and Cappadocia under that of Cato, Cic. Fam. xv. 4. the Allobroges under the patronage of the Fabii, Sallust. Cat. 41. the Bononienses, of the Antonii, Suet. Aug. 17. Lacedæmon, of the Claudii, Id. Tib. 6. Thus the people of Puteoli chose Cassius and the Bruti for their patrons, Cic. Phil. ii. 41. Capua chose Cicero, Cic. Pis. 11. Fam. xvi. 11. &c. This however seems to have taken place also at an early period, Liv. ix. 20. &c.

Those whose ancestors or themselves had borne any Curule magistracy, that is, had been Consul, Prætor, Censor, or Curule Edile, were called NOBILES, and had the right of making images of themselves, (JUS IMAGINUM,) which were kept with great care by their posterity, and carried before them at funerals, Plin. xxxv. 2.

These images were nothing else but the busts or the effigies.

of persons down to the shoulders, made of wax and painted; which they used to place in the courts of their houses, (atria,) enclosed in wooden cases, and which they seem not to have brought out except on solemn occasions, Polyb. vi. 51. There were titles or inscriptions written below them, pointing out the honours they had enjoyed, and the exploits they had performed, (Juvenal. Sat. viii. 69. Plin. xxxv. 2.) Hence imagines is often put for nobilitas, Sallust. Jug. 85. Liv. iii. 58. and cera for imagines, Ovid. Amor. i. 8. 65. Anciently this right of images was peculiar to the patricians; but afterwards the plebeians also acquired it, when admitted to curule offices.

Those who were the first of their family that had raised themselves to any curule office, were called homines NOVI, new men or upstarts. Hence Cicero calls himself Homo per se cogreitus, in Cat. i. 11.

Those who had no images of their own or of their ancestors, were called IGNOBILES.

Those, who favoured the interests of the senate, were called OPTIMATES, Liv. ii. 89. and sometimes Proceres or Principes. Those who studied to gain the favour of the multitude, were called POPULARES, of whatever order they were, Cic. pro Sext. 45. This was a division of factions, and not of rank and dignity, Dionys. ix. i. The contests betwixt these two parties excited the greatest commotions in the state, which finally terminated in the extinction of liberty.

THE

II. GENTES and FAMILIE NAMES of the Romans;
INGENUI and LIBERTINI, &c.

HE Romans were divided into various clans, (GENTES,). and each gens into several families, (in FAMILIAS V. Stirpes.) Thus in the Gens Cornelia were the families of the Scipiones, Lentuli, Cethegi, Dolabelle, Cinna, Syllæ, &c. Those of the same gens were called GENTILES, and those of the same faemily, AGNATI, Cic. Top. c. 6. Festus in Voce GENTILIS. But relations by the father's side were also called Agnati, to distinguish them from Cognati, relations only by the mother's side. An Agnatus might also be called Cognatus, but not the contrary. Thus patruus, the father's brother, was both an agnatus and cognatus; but avunculus, the mother's brother, was only a cognaius, Digest.

Ancfently patricians were only said to have a gens, Liv. X. 8. Hence some patricians were said to be majorum gentium, and others minorum gentium, Cic. Fam. ix. 21. But when the piebeians obtained the right of intermarriage with the patri

1

cians, and access to the honours of the state, they likewise received the rights of gentes, (jura gentium, vel gentilia ;) which rights were then said to be confounded by these innovations, Liv. iv. 1. &c. Hence, however, some gentes were patrician, and others plebeian; and sometimes in the same gens there were some families of patrician rank, and others of plebeian, Suet. Tib. 1. Hence also sine gente, for libertinus et non generosus, ignobly born, Horat. Sat. ii. 5. 15.

To mark the different gentes and familie, and to distinguish the individuals of the same family, the Romans, at least the more noble of them, had commonly three names, the Prænomen, Nomen, and Cognomen, Juvenal. v. 126. Quinctil. viii. 3. 27.

The PRÆNOMEN was put first, and marked the individual. It was commonly written with one letter; as, A. for Aulus; C. Caius; D. Decimus; K. Kaso; L. Lucius; M. Marcus; M'. Manius; N. Numerius; P. Publius; Q. Quintus; T. Titus ; sometimes with two letters; as, Ap. Appius; Cn. Cneius; Sp. Spurius; Ti. Tiberius; and sometimes with three; as, Mam. Mamercus; Ser. Servius; Sex. Sextus.

The NOMEN was put after the Prænomen, and marked the gens, and commonly ended in ius; as, Cornelius, Fabius, Tullius, Julius, Octavius, &c.

The COGNOMEN was put last, and marked the familia; as, Cicero, Casar, &c. Thus in Publius Cornelius Scipio Publius is the Prænomen, Cornelius, the Nomen; and Scipio, the Cognomen.

Some gentes seem to have had no sirname: as, the Marian: thus, C. Marius, Q. Sertorius, L. Mummius, Plutarch, in Mario. Gens and familia seem sometimes to be put the one for the other: thus, Fabia gens, v. familia, Liv. ii. 49.

- Sometimes there was also a fourth name, called the AGNOMEN or Cognomen, added for some illustrious action or remarkable event. Thus Scipio was named Africanus, from the conquest of Carthage and Africa. On a similar account, his brother Lucius Cornelius Scipio was named Asiaticus. So Quintus Fabius Maximus was called Cunctator, from his checking the impetuosity of Hannibal by declining battle. We find likewise a second Agnomen or Cognomen added; thus, the latter Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus is called Emilianus, because he was the son of L. Æmilius Paulus, and adopted by the son of the great Scipio, who had no children of his own. But he is commonly called by authors Africanus Minor, to distinguish him from the former Scipio Africanus.

The Romans at first seem to have had but one name as Romulus, Remus, &c. or two; as Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, Sextus Tarqui

nius. But when they were divided into tribes or clans and families, (in gentes et familias), they began commonly to have three; as, L. Junius Brutus, M. Valerius Poplicola, &c.

The three names, however, were not always used; commonly two, and sometimes only one, namely, the sirname, Sall. Cat. 17. Cic. Epist. passim. But in speaking to any one, the prænomen was generally used, as being peculiar to citizens; for slaves had no prænomen. Hence, Gaudent prænomine molles auricula, Hor.

Sat. ii. 5. 32.

The sirnames were derived from various circumstances, either from some quality of the mind; as Cato from wisdom, i. e. Cuius, wise, Cic. de Sen. 2. &c. or from the habit of the body, as Calvus, Crassus, Macer, &c. or from cultivating particular fruits, as Lentulus, Piso, Cicero, &c. Certain sirnames sometimes gave occasion to jests and witty allusions; thus, Asina, Hor. Ep. i. 13. 9. So Serranus Calatinus, Cic. pro Sext. 33. Hence also in a different sense Virgil says, Vel te sulco, Serrane, serentem, Eu. vi. 844; for Q. Cincinnatus was called SERRANUS, because the ambassadors from the senate found him sowing, when they brought him notice that he was made dictator, Plin. xviii. 3.

The Prænomen used to be given to boys, on the 9th day, which was called dies lustricus, or the day of purification, when certain religious ceremonies were performed, Macrob. Sat. 1. 16. Suet. Ner. 6. The eldest son of the family usually got the Prænome of his father, the rest were named from their uncles or other relations.

When there was only one daughter in a family, she used to be called from the name of the gens; thus, Tullia, the daughter of Cicero; Julia, the daughter of Cæsar; Octavia, the sister of Augustus, &c. and they retained the same name after they were married. When there were two daughters, the one was called Major and the other Minor; thus, Cornelia Major, Cornelia Minor. If there were more than two, they were distinguished by their number; thus, Prima, Secunda, Tertia, Quarta, Quinta, &c. Varro de Lat. Ling. viii. 38. Suet. Jul. 50. Or more softly, Tertulla, Quartilla, Quintilla, &c. Cic. Att. xiv. 20. Women seem anciently to have also had prænomens, which were marked with inverted letters; thus, for Caia, 7 for Lucia, &c.

During the flourishing state of the republic, the names of the gentes, and sirnames of the familia always remained fixed and certain. They were common to all the children of a family, and descended to their posterity. But after the subversion of liberty they were changed and confounded.*

The first imposition of names was founded on different views, among different people; the most common was to mark the good wishes of the parents. Hence Victor,