Those were called LIBERI, free, who had the power of doing what they pleased. Those who were born of parents who had been always free, were called INGENUI. Slaves made free were called LIBERTI and LIBERTINI They were called Liberti in relation to their masters, and Libertini in relation to free-born citizens; thus, Libertus meus, libertus Cæsaris, and not libertinus; but libertinus homo, i. e. non ingenuus. Servus, cùm manu mittitur, fit libertinus, (non libertus,) Quinctil. 8. 3. 27.

Some think that Libertini were the sons of the Liberti, from Suetonius, Claud. 24. who says, that they were thus called anciently: so Isidor. ix. 4. but this distinction never occurs in the classics. On the contrary, we find both words applied to the same person in writers who flourished in different ages. Plaut. Mil. Glor. iv. 1. 15. & 16. Cic. in Verr. i. 47. Those whom Cicero, de Orat. i. 9. calls Libertini, Livy makes qui servitutem servissent, 45. 15. Hence Seneca often contrasts Servi et Liberi, Ingenui et Libertini, de Vit. Beat. 24. Ep. 31. &c.

SLAVES.

MEN became slaves among the Romans, by being taken in war, by sale, by way of punishment, or by being born in a state of servitude, (Servi aut nascebantur aut fiebant.)

1. Those enemies, who voluntarily laid down their arms, and surrendered themselves, retained the rights of freedom, and were called DEDITITII, Liv. vii. 31. Cæs. i. 27. But those taken in the field, or in the storming of cities, were sold by auction (sub corona, as it was termed, Liv. v. 22. &c. because they wore a crown when sold; or sub hasta, because a spear was set up where the crier or auctioneer stood.) They were called SERVI, (quod essent bello servati) Isidor. ix. 4. or MANCIPIA, (quasi manu capti,) Varr. L. L. v. 8.

2. There was a continual market for slaves at Rome. Those who dealt in that trade (MANGONES vel VENALITII, Cic.

Faustus, Probus, &c. Such names are by Cicero called bona nomina, and by Tacitus fausta. The greatest part of names found in Homer are marks of distinction, given in honour of the qualities most esteemed in the heroic ages. Such were Tlepolemus, Amphimachus, Eumedes, Patroclus, &c. Hence Camden takes it for granted, that names in all nations and languages are significative. The ancient Brilons generally took their names from colours. Our Christian names are derived from various languages; 1st. from the Hebrew, as David, Sampson, Daniel: 2d. from the German, as Robert, William, Henry: 3d. from the Greek, as Peter, Andrew, George, &c.: 4th. from the Latin, as Pompey, Claudius, Lucius, &c. See Camden's Remains. In Monasteries the Religious assume new names at their admittance. The Popes also changed their names at their exaltation to the Pontificate. Towards the middle of the 15th century, it was the fancy of the learned men of the age, particularly in Italy, to change their baptismal names, for classical ones. For the origin and time of introduction of sirnames, &c. see Encyclopædia Britanica.

Orat. 70. qui venales habebant. Plaut. Trin. ii. 2. 51.) brought them thither from various countries. The seller was bound to promise for the soundness of his slaves, and not to conceal their faults, Horat. Sat. ii. 3. 285. Hence they were commonly exposed to sale (producebantur) naked; and they carried a scroll (titulus vel inscriptio) hanging at their necks, on which their good and bad qualities were specified, Gell. iv. 2. If the seller gave a false account, he was bound to make up the loss, Cic. Off. iii. 16. & 17. or in some cases to take back the slave, Ibid. 23. Those whom the seller would not warrant, (præstare,), were sold with a kind of cap on their head, (pileati, Gell. vii. 4.)

Those brought from beyond seas had their feet whitened with chalk, (cretatis v. gypsatis pedibus, Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 17. & 18. s. 58. Tibull. ii. 3. 64.) and their ears bored, (auribus perforatis,) Juvenal. i. 104. Sometimes slaves were sold on that condition, that if they did not please, they should be returned (redhiberentur) within a limited time, Cic. Off. iii. 24. Plaut. Most. iii. 2. 113. Festus. Foreign slaves, when first brought to the city, were called VENALES, or SERVI NOVICI, Cic. pro Quinct. 6. Plin. Ep. i. 21. Quinctilian. i. 12. 2. viii. 2. 8. Slaves who had served long, and hence were become artful, veteratores, Terent. Heaut. v. 1. 16.

It was not lawful for free-born citizens among the Romans, as among other nations, to sell themselves for slaves. Much less was it allowed any other person to sell free men. But as this gave occasion to certain frauds, it was ordained by a deGree of the senate, that those who allowed themselves to be sold for the sake of sharing the price, should remain in slavery. Fathers might, indeed, sell their children for slaves, but these did not on that account entirely lose the rights of citizens. For when freed from their slavery, they were held as Ingenui, not Libertini. The same was the case with insolvent debtors, who were given up as slaves to their creditors, (inservitutem cre- . ditoribus addicti,) Quinctilian. vi. 3. 26. v. 10. 60.

3. Criminals were often reduced to slavery by way of punishment. Thus those who had neglected to get themselves enrolled in the censor's books, or refused to enlist, (qui censum aut militiam subterfugerant,) had their goods confiscated, and after being scourged, were sold beyond the Tiber, Cic. pro Cacina, 24. Those condemned to the mines, or to fight with wild beasts, or to any extreme punishment, were first deprived of liberty, and by a fiction of law, termed slaves of punishment, (servi pæne fingebantur.)

4. The children of any female slave became the slaves of her There was no regular marriage among slaves, but their

master.

connexion was called CONTUBERNIUM, and themselves Contubernales. Those slaves who were born in the house of their masters, were called VERNÆ, or Vernaculi; hence lingua vernacula, v-aris, one's mother tongue. These slaves were more petulant than others, because they were commonly more indulged, Horat. Sat. ii. 6. 66.

The whole company of slaves in one house was called FAMILIA, Nep. Att. 13. Cic. Paradox. v. 2. (Familia constat ex servis pluribus, Cic. Cæcin. 19. Quindecim liberi homines, populus est; totidem servi, familia; totidem vincti, ergastulum, Apulei. Apol.), and the slaves, Familiares, Cic. pro Col. 23. Plaut. Amphit. Prol. 127 Hence familiæ philosophorum, sects, Cic. fin. iv. 18. Divin. ii. 1. Att. ii. 16. Sententia, quæ familiam ducit, HONESTUM QUOD SIT, ID ESSE SOLUM BONUM, the chief maxim of the Stoics, Id. fin. ii. 16. Lucius familiam ducit, is the chief of the sect, Id. Phil. v. 11. Accedit etiam, quod familiam ducit, &c. is the chief ground of praise, Fam. vii. 5.

The proprietor of slaves was called DOMINUS, Terent. Eun. iii. 2. 23. whence this word was put for a tyrant, Liv. ii. 60. On this account Augustus refused the name, Suet. Aug. 53. So Tiberius, Id. 27. Tacit Annal. ii. 27.

Slaves not only did all domestic services, but were likewise employed in various trades and manufactures. Such as had a genius for it, were sometimes instructed in literature and the liberal arts, (artibus ingenuis, liberalibus v. honestis, Cic.) Horat. Ep. ii. 2. 7. Some of these were sold at a great price, Plin. vii. 39. s. 40. Senec. Ep. 27. Suet. Jul. 47. Cic. Rosc. Com. 10. Hence arose a principal part of the immense wealth of Crassus, Plutarch. in vita ejus.

Slaves employed to accompany boys to and from school, were called PÆDAGOGI; and the part of the house where those young slaves staid, who were instructed in literature, (literæ serviles, Senec. Ep. 88.) was called PEDAGOGIUM, Plin. Ep.

vii. 27.

Slaves were promoted according to their behaviour; as from being a drudge or mean slave in town, (Mediastinus,) to be an overseer in the country, (Villicus,) Horat. Ep. i. 14.

The country farms of the wealthy Romans in later times were cultivated chiefly by slaves, Plin. xviii. 3. But there were also free men who wrought for hire, as among us, (MERCENARII,) Cic. Off. i. 13. pro Cacin. 59.

Among the Romans, masters had an absolute power over their slaves. They might scourge or put them to death at pleasure, Juvenal. Sat. vi. 219. This right was exercised with so great cruelty, especially in the corrupt ages of the republic, that laws

were made at different times to restrain it. The lash was the common punishment; but for certain crimes they used to be branded in the forehead, and sometimes were forced to carry a piece of wood round their necks, wherever they went, which was called FURCA; and whoever had been subjected to this punishment, was ever afterwards called FURCIFER. A slave that had been often beaten, was called MASTIGIA, Ter. Adelph. v. 2. 6. or VERBERO, Id. Phorm. iv. 4. 3. A slave who bad been branded, was called STIGMATIAS, v. -icus, i. e. notis compunctus, Cic. Off. ii. 7. Inscriptus, Mart. viii. 75. 9. Literatus, Plaut. Cas. ii. 6. 49. (i. e. literis inscriptus: as, urna literata, Plaut. Rud. ii. 5. 21. ensiculus literatus, &c. Id. iv. 4. 112.) Slaves also by way of punishment were often shut up in a work-house, or bridewell, (in ergastula v. PISTRINO), where they were obliged to turn a mill for grinding corn, Plaut. et Ter. passim. et Senec. de Benef. iv. 37.

Persons employed to apprehend and bring back (retrahere, Ter. Heaut. iv. 2. 65.) slaves who fled from their masters, (FuGITIVI, Cic. Fam. v. 9.) were called FUGITIVARII, Flor. iii. 19.

When slaves were beaten, they used to be suspended with a weight tied to their feet, that they might not move them, Plaut. Asin. ii. 2. 34. &c. Aul. iv. 4. 16. Ter. Phorm. i. 4. 43. To deter slaves from offending, a thong (habenû) or a lash made of leather was commonly hung on the staircase, (in scalis,) Horat. Ep. ii. 2. 15. but this was chiefly applied to younger slaves, Scholiast. ibid. Impuberes habena vel ferulâ plectebantur, Ulpian. D. i. 33. de SC. Silan. Some here join in scalis with latuit, as Cic. in Mil. 15. Phil. ii. 9.

Slaves when punished capitally were commonly crucified, Juvenal. vi. 219. Cic. in Verr. v. 3. 64. &c. but this punishment was prohibited under Constantine.

If a master of a family was slain at his own house, and the murderer not discovered, all his domestic slaves were liable to be put to death, Hence we find no less than 400 in one family punished on this account, Tacit. Ann. xiv. 43.

Slaves were not esteemed as persons, but as things, and might be transferred from one owner to another, like any other effects. Slaves could not appear as witnesses in a court of justice, Ter. Phorm. ii. 1. 62. nor make a will, Plin. Ep. viii. 16. nor inherit any thing, Id. iv. 11; but gentle masters allowed them to make a kind of will, (quasi testamenta facere,) Plin. Ep. viii 16; nor could slaves serve as soldiers, Id. x. 39. unless first made free, Serv. in Virg. Æn. ix. 547. except in the time of Hanni bal, when, after the battle of Cannæ, 8000 slaves were armed without being freed, Liv. xxii. 57. These were called VO.

LONES, because they enlisted voluntarily, Festus; and afterwards obtained their freedom for their bravery, Lw. xxiv. 16.

Slaves had a certain allowance granted them for their sustenance, (DIMENSUM,) commonly four or five pecks (modii) of grain a month, and fivé denarii, which was called their MÉNSTRUUM, Donat. in Ter. Phorm. i. 1. 9. Senec. Ep. 80. They likewise had a daily allowance, (DIARIUM, Horat. Ep. i. 14. 40.) And what they spared of this, or procured by any other means with their master's consent, was called their PECULIUM. This money, with their master's permission, they laid out at interest, or purchased with it a slave for themselves, from whose labours they might make profit. Such a slave was called Servi VICARIUS, Horat. Sat. ii. 7. 79. Cic. Verr. i. 36. Plaut. Asin. ii. 4. 27. Martial. ii. 18. 7. and constituted part of the peculium, with which also slaves sometimes purchased their freedom. Cicero says, that sober and industrious slaves, at least such as became slaves from being captives in war, seldom remained in servitude above six years, Phil. viii. 11. At certain times slaves were obliged to make presents to their masters out of their poor savings, (ex eo quod de dimenso suo unciatim comparserint,) Terent. ibid. There was sometimes an agreement between the master and the slave, that when the slave should pay a certain sum, the master should be obliged to give him his liberty, Plaut. Aul. v. 3. Casin. ii. 5. 6. &c. Rud. iv. 2. 23. Tacit. xiv. 42.

Although the state of slaves in point of right was the same, yet their condition in families was very different, according to the pleasure of their masters, and their different employments. Some were treated with indulgence; some served in chains, as janitors and door-keepers, (ostiarii;) and so in the country, catenati cultores, Flor. iii. 19. Vincti fossores, Lucan. vii. 402. others were confined in workhouses below ground, (in ergastulis subterraneis.) So Pliny, Vincti pedes, damnatæ, manus, in scriptique vultus, arva exercent, xviii. 3.

At certain times slaves were allowed the greatest freedom; as at the feast of Saturn in the month of December, Horat. Sat. ii. 7. 4. when they were served at table by their masters, Auson. de Fer. Rom. ii. 15. and on the Ides of August, Festus.

The number of slaves in Rome and through Italy was immense, Juvenal. iii. 140. Some rich individuals are said to have had several thousands, Seneca de Trang. An. viii. Wars were sometimes excited by an insurrection of the slaves, Flor. iii. 19. & 20.

There were also public slaves, who were used for various public services, Liv. i. 7. and especially to attend on the magistrates. Their condition was much more tolerable than that of private