the walls, as we have; hence they were much infested with it, Horat. Sat. i. 5. 81. Vitruv. vii. 3. hence also the images in the hall are called FUMOSE, Cic. Pis. 1. Juvenal. viii. 8. and December Fumosus, from the use of fires in that month, Martial. v. 31.5. They burnt wood, Horat. od. i. 9. 5. which they were at great pains to dry, Id. iii. 17. 14. and anoint with the lees of oil, (amurca), to prevent smoke, Plin. xv. 8. hence called ligna ACAPNA, (ex a priv. et maxvos, fumus), Mart. xiii. 15. vel coca, ne fumum faciant, Ulpian. de legg. iii. l. 53. Cato de R. R. c. 133.

The Romans used portable furnaces, (camini portatiles, fornaces, vel -culæ, foculi, ignitabula vel eschara) for carrying embers and burning coals, (pruna vel carbones igniti), to warm the different apartments of a house, Suet. Tib. 74. Vit. 8. which seem to have been placed in the middle of the room, Cat. de re rust. 18. Colum. xi. 1.

In the time of Seneca, a method was contrived of conveying heat from a furnace below, by means of tubes or canals fixed to the walls, (per tubos parietibus impressos), which warmed the rooms more equally, Senec. ep. 90. de provid. 4.

4. An open place in the centre of the house, where the rainwater fell, and which admitted light from above, was called IMPLUVIUM, or Compluvium, Festus; Varro de L. L. iv. 33. Ascon. in Cic. Varr. i. 23. Liv. xliii. 15. also CAEDIUM, or Cavum adium, Varr. ibid. Plin. ep. ii. 17. commonly uncovered, (subdivale); if not, from its arched roof, called TESTUDO, Varr. ibid.

Vitruvius directs, that it should not be more than the third, nor less than the fourth part of the breadth of the Atrium, vi. 4.

The slave, who had the charge of the Atrium and what it contained, was called ATRIENSIS, Petron. 25. He held the first rank among his fellow slaves, Cic. Top. 5. Plaut. Asin. ii. 3. 80. and exercised authority over them, Id. ii. 4. 13.

5. The sleeping apartments in a house were called CUBICULA dormitoria, vel nocturna, noctis, et somni; for there were also cubicula diurna, for reposing in the day-time, Plin. ep. i. 3. ii. 17.

v. 6.

Each of these had commonly an anti-chamber adjoining, (ProCOETUM, vel Procestrium), Ibid.

There were also in bed chambers places for holding books, inserted in the walls, (armaria parieti inserta). Id. ii. 17.

Any room or apartment in the inner part of the house, under lock and key, as we say, was called CONCLAVE, vel -ium, Ter. Heaut. v. 1. 29. (a con et clavis, quòd unâ clavi clauditur, Festus ; vel quod intra eum locum loca multa et cubicula clausa sunt, adhærentia triclinio, Donat. in Ter. Eun. iii. 5. 35.) put also for the TRICLINIUM, Cic. Verr. iv, 26. Orat. ii. 86. Quinctil. ix. 2. Horat. Sat, ii. 6. 113.

Among the Greeks, the woman had a separate apartment from the men, called GYNÆCEUM, (yvvaixčiov), Cic. Phil. ii. 37. Ter. Phorm. v. 6. 22.

The slaves who took care of the bed-chamber were called CUBICULARII, Cic. Att. vi. 14. Suet. Tib. 21. or CUBICULARES, Id. Ner. 38. the chief of them, PRÆPOSITUS CUBICULO, vel DECURIO CUBICULARIORUM, Suet. Dom. 16. & 17. They were usually in great favour with their masters, and introduced such as wanted to see them, Cic. ibid. For the Emperors often gave audience in their bed-chamber; the doors of which had hangings or curtains suspended before them, (foribus prætenta vela), Tacit. Ann. 5. Suet. Cl. 10. which were drawn up (levabantur) when any one entered, Senec. ep. 81.

The eating apartments were called Canationes, Canacula, vel Triclinia. See p. 417 & 418.

A parlour for supping or sitting in, was called DIETA, Plin. ep. ii. 17. Suet. Cl. 10. sometimes several apartments joined together, were called by that name, or Zeta, Plin. ep. ii. 17. v. 6. and a small apartment or alcove, which might be joined to the principal apartment, or separated from it at pleasure, by means of curtains and windows, ZOTHECA, vel -cula, Ibid.

DIETA, in the civil law, is often put for a pleasure-house in a garden: So Plin. ep. ii. 17. and by Cicero, for diet, or a certain mode of living, for the cure of a disease, Att. iv. 3. It is sometimes confounded with cubiculum, Plin. ep. vi. 16.

An apartment for basking in the sun was called SOLARIUM, Plaut. Mil. ii. 4. 25. Suet. Cl. 10. which Nero appointed to be made on the portico before the house, Id. Ner. 16. or HELIOCAMINUS, Plin. ib.

The apartments of a house were variously constructed and arranged at different times, and according to the different taste of individuals.

The Roman houses were covered with tiles (tegula), of a considerable breadth; hence bricks and tiles are mentioned in Vitruvius and ancient monuments, two feet broad, (bipedales; and a garret, (canaculum), covered by one tile; Suet. Gramm. 11. When war was declared against Antony, the senators were taxed at 4 oboli or 10 asses for every tile on their houses, whether their own property or hired, Dio. xlvi. 31. In Nonius Marcellus we read, In singulas tegulas impositis sexcentis sexcenties confici posse, c. iv. 93. But here sexcentis is supposed to be by mistake for sex nummis, or singulas tegulas to be put for singula tecta,

each roof.

The roofs (tecta) of the Roman houses, seem to have been generally of an angular form, like ours, the top or highest part

of which was called FASTIGIUM, Festus, Virg. Æn. i. 442. ií. 458. 758. hence operi fastigium imponere, to finish, Cic. Off. iii. 7. put also for the whole roof, Cic. Órat. iii. 46. Q. fr. iii. 1. 4. but particularly for a certain part on the top of the front of temples, where inscriptions were made, Plin. paneg. 54. and statues erected, Plin. xxxv. 12. s. 45. xxxvi. 5. Hence it was decreed by the Senate, that Julius Cæsar might add a Fastigium to the front of his house, and adorn it in the same manner as a temple, Flor. iv. 2. Cic. Phil ii. 43. which the night before he was slain, his wife Calpurnia dreamt had fallen down, Suet. Jul. 81. Plutarch. in Cæs. p. 738.

From the sloping of the sides of the roof of a house, FASTIGIUM is put for any declivity; hence Cloaca fastigio ducta, sloping, Liv. i. 38. So Cæs. B. G. i. 25. ii. 24. FASTIGATUS, bending or sloping, Cas. B. G. ii. 8. and from its proper signification, viz. the summit or top, it is put for dignity or rank; thus, Curatio altior fastigio suo, a charge superior to his rank. Liv. ii. 27. Pari fastigio stetit, with equal dignity, Nep. xxv. 14. In consulare fastigium provectus, to the honour of consul, Vell. ii. 69. or for any head of discourse; Summa sequar fastigia rerum, I will recount the chief circumstances, Virg. Æn. i. 346. also for depth, as altitudo, Serv in Virg. G. ii. 288. The centre of the inner part of a round roof of a temple, where the beams joined, was called THOLUS, Serv. in Virg. Æn. ix. 408. Ovid. Fast. vi. 296. the front of which, or the space above the door, was also called FASTIGIUM, Virg. ibid. But any round roof was called THOLUS, Martial. ii. 59. Vitruv. i. 7. 5. as that of Vesta, resembling the concave hemisphere of the sky, Ovid. Fast. vi. 282. & 296. Whence Dio says, that the Pantheon of Agrippa had its name, because from the roundness of its figure (Sonodes or) it resembled heaven, the abode of the gods, liii. 27. From the Tholus offerings consecrated to the gods, as spoils taken in war, &c. used to be suspended, or fixed to the Fastigium, Virg. ib. and on the top of the Tholus, on the outside, statues were sometimes placed, Mart. i. 71. 10.

The ancient Romans had only openings, (foramina), in the walls to admit the light; FENESTRÆ, windows, (from pacow, ostendo; hence oculi et aures sunt quasi fenestræ animi, Cic. Tusc. 1. 20.) covered with two folding leaves, (bifores valve), of wood, Ovid. Pont. iii. 5. Amor. i. 5. 3. and sometimes a curtain, Juvenal. ix. 105. hence said to be joined, when shut, Horat. i. 25. Cubiculum ne diem quidem sentit, nisi apertis fenestris, Plin. ii. 17. ix. 36. sometimes covered with a net, (fenestra RETICULATE, ne quod animal maleficum introire queat, Varr. R. R. iii. 7.) occasionally shaded by curtains, (obductis velis), Plin. ep. vii. 21.

Under the first Emperors, windows were composed of a certain transparent stone, called LAPIS SPECULARIS, found first in Spain, and afterwards in Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and Africa, which might be split into thin leaves, (finditur in quamlibet tenues crustas). like slate, but not above five feet long each, Senec. ep. 90. Plin. xxxvi. 22. s. 45. What this stone was is

uncertain.

Windows, however, of that kind (SPECULARIA), were used only in the principal apartments of great houses, Senec. ep. 86. Nat. Q. iv. 13. in gardens, Plin. xv. 16. xix. 5. Martial. viii. 14. called PERSPICUA GEMMA, Ib. 68. in porticos, Plin. ep. ii. 17. in sedans, (lectica) Juvenal. iv. 21. or the like.

Paper, linen cloth, and horn, seem likewise to have been used for windows; hence CORNEUM SPECULAR, Tert. de Anim. 53.

The Romans did not use glass for windows, although they used it for other purposes, particularly for mirrors, (specula), nor is it yet universally used in Italy, on account of the heat. Glass was first invented in Phoenicia, accidentally, by mariners burning nitre on the sand of the sea-shore, Plin. xxxvi. 26. s. 65.

Glass windows (vitrea specularia) are not mentioned till about the middle of the fourth century by Hieronymus, (St. Jerome,) ad Ezech. xl. 16. first used in England, A. D. 1177; first made there, 1558; but plate-glass for coaches and looking-glasses not till 1673.

The Romans, in later times, adorned the pavements of their houses with small pieces (crustæ, vel -a) of marble, of different kinds, and different colours, curiously joined together, called PAVIMENTA SECTILIA, Suet. Cæs. 46. (Sootpara, Varro,) vel EMBLEMATA VERMICULATA, Cic. Orat. iii. 43. or with small pebbles, calculi, vel tesseræ, s. -ulæ), dyed in various colours; hence called PAVIMENTA TESSELLATA, Suet. Ib. used likewise, and most frequently, in ceilings, Lucan. x. 114. in after times, called opus mēusum, vel musivum, Mosaic work, probably because first used in caves or grottos, consecrated to the muses, (musea), Plin. xxxvi. 21. s. 42. The walls also used to be covered with crusts of marble, lb. 6.

Ceilings were often adorned with ivory, and fretted or formed into raised work and hollows, (laqueata tecta, Cic. legg. ii. 1. LAQUEARIA Vel LACUNARIA, from lacus or lacuna, the hollow interstice between the beams, Serv. in Virg. Æn. 1. 726.) gilt, (aurea, Ibid. & Horat. od. ii. 11. inaurata, Plin. xxxiii. 3.) and painted, Plin. xxxv. 11. s. 40. Nero made the ceiling of his dining room to shift and exhibit new appearances, as the different courses or dishes were removed, Senec. ep. 90. Suet. Ner. 31.

VILLAS and GARDENS of the ROMANS.

HE magnificence of the Romans was chiefly conspicuous in their country-villas, Cic. de legg. iii. 13.

VILLA originally denoted a farm-house, and its appurtenances, or the accommodations requisite for a husbandman, (quasi VELLA, quo fructus vehebant, & unde vehebant, cum venderentur, Varr. R. R. i. 2. 14.) hence the overseer of a farm was called VILLICUS; and his wife, (UXOR liberi, et CONTUBERNALIS servi), VILLICA. But when luxury was introduced, the name of villa was applied to a number of buildings reared for accommodating the family of an opulent Roman citizen in the country, Cic. Rosc. Com. 12. hence some of them are said to have been built in the manner of cities, in urbium modum exædificate, Sallust. Cat. 12. Edificia privata, laxitatem urbium magnarum vincentia, Senec. benef. vii. 10. Ep. 90, Horat. od. ii. 15. iii. 1. 33.

A villa of this kind was divided into three parts, URBANA, RUSTICA, and FRUCTUARIA. The first contained dining rooms, parlours, bed-chambers, baths, tennis-courts, walks, terraces, (xysti), &c. adapted to the different seasons of the year. The villa rustica contained accommodations for the various tribes of slaves and workmen, stables, &c. and the Fructuaria, wine and oil-cellars, corn-yards, (fanilia et palearia) barns, granaries, store-houses, repositories, for preserving fruits, (aporotheca), &c. Columel. i.

4. 6.

Cato and Varro include both the last parts under the name of VILLA RUSTICA, Cat. de R. R. iii. 1. ix. 1. Varr. xiii. 6. But the name of villa is often applied to the first alone, without the other two, and called by Vitruvius, PSEUDO-URBANA; by others, PRETORIUM, Suet. Aug. 72. Cal. 37. Tit. 8.

In every villa there commonly was a tower; in the upper part of which was a supping room, (canatio), where the guests, while reclining at table, might enjoy at the same time a pleasant prospect, Plin. ep. ii. 17.

Adjoining to the VILLA RUSTICA, were places for keeping hens, GALLINARIUM; geese, CHENO BOCIUM; ducks, and wild fowl, NESSOTROPHIUM; birds, ornithon, vel AVIARIUM; dormice, GLIRARIUM; swine, SUILE, sc. stabulum, et hara, hogsties; hares, rabbits, &c. LEPORARIUM, a warren: bees, APIARIUM; and even snails, COCHLEARE, &c.

There was a large park, of fifty acres or more (@apadecos), for deer and wild beasts, THERIOTROPHIUM, vel VIVARIUM, Gell. ii. 20. but the last word is applied also to a fish-pond, (PISCINA), Juvenal. iv. 51. or an oyster-bed, Plin. ix. 54. or any place where live animals were