slaves. They had yearly allowances, (ANNUA) granted them by the public, Plin. Epist. x. 30. 40.

There were also persons attached to the soil, (ADSCRIPTITII, vel gleba adscripti;) concerning the state of whom, writers are not agreed.

Slaves anciently bore the prænomen of their master; thus, Marcipores, Lucipores, Publipores, (quasi Marci, Lucii, Publii pueri, &c.) Quinctilian. i. 4. 26. Afterwards they got various names, either from their country, or from other circumstances; as Syrus, Davus, Geta, Parmeno, &c. in comic writers; Tiro, Laurea, Dionysius, &c. in Cicero. But slaves are usually distinguished in the classics by their different employments; as Medici, Chirurgi, Padagogi, Grammatici, Scribæ, Fabri, Coqui, &c.

Slaves were anciently freed in three ways, Censu, Vindicta, et Testamento, Cic. Topic. 2. seu 10.

1. Per CENSUM, when a slave, with his master's knowledge, or by his order, got his name inserted in the Censor's roll, Cic. Cacin. 34. s. 99.

2. Per VINDICTAM, when a master going with his slave in his hand to the Prætor or Consul, and in the provinces, to the Proconsul or Proprætor, said, "I desire that this man be "free according to the custom of the Romans;" HUNC HOMINEM LIBERUM Esse volo more vel JURE QUIRITIUM; and the Prætor, if he approved, putting a rod on the head of the slave, Horat. Sat. ii. 7. 76. pronounced, "I say that this man is free after the manner "of the Romans." Whereupon the lictor, or the master, turning him round in a circle, (which was called VERTIGO, Pers. Sat. v. 75.) and giving him a blow on the cheek, (alăpa, Isidor. ix. 4. whence, multo majoris alăpæ mecum veneunt, Liberty is sold, &c. Phædr. ii. 5. 22.) let him go, (e manu emittebat) signifying, that leave was granted him to go where he pleased. The rod with which the slave was struck, was called VINDICTA, as some think, from Vindicius or Vindex, a slave of the Vitelli, who informed the senate concerning the conspiracy of the sons of Brutus and others, to restore the Tarquins, and who is said to have been first freed in this manner, Liv. ii. 5. whence also aperhaps Vindicare in libertatem, to free. MULIER, modo quam vindicta redemit, a woman lately freed, Ovid. Art. Am. iii. 615.

3. Per TESTAMENTUM, when a master gave his slaves their liberty by his will. If this was done in express words, (verbis directis,) as for example, DAVUS SERVUS MEUS LIBER ESTO: such freed men were called ORCINI or Charonita, because they had no patron but in the infernal regions. In allusion to which, those unworthy persons, who got admission into the senate after the death of Cæsar, were by the vulgar called SENATORES

ORCINI, Suet. Aug. 35. But if the Testator signified his desire by way of request, (verbis precativis,) thus, Rogo heredem MEUM, UT DAVUM MANUMITTAT; the heir (hæres fiduciarius) retained the rights of patronage.* +

Liberty procured in any of those methods was called JUSTA LIBERTAS.

In later times slaves used to be freed in various other ways; by letter, (per epistolam ;) among friends, (inter amicos,) when before five witnesses a master ordered his slave to be free; or by table, (per mensam,) if a master bid a slave eat at his table: Plin. Epist. vii. 16. for it was thought disgraceful to eat with slaves or mean persons, and benches (subsellia) were assigned them, not couches. Hence imi subsellii vir, a person of the lowest rank, Plaut. Stich. iii. 4. 32. There were many other methods of freeing slaves, but these did not confer complete freedom. They only discharged them from servitude, but did not entitle them to the privileges of citizens; unless afterwards the vindicta was superadded, in presence of a magistrate, Plin. Ep. vii. 16. & 32.

Anciently the condition of all freed slaves was the same; they obtained the freedom of the city with their liberty, Cic. pro Balbo, 9: according to the institution of Servius Tullius, Dionys. iv. 22. & 23. They were, however, distributed among the four city tribes, as being more ignoble, Liv. Epit. xx. But afterwards, when many worthless and profligate persons, being freed by their masters, thus invaded the rights of citizens, various laws were made to check the license of manumitting slaves. No master was allowed to free by his will above a certain proportion of the number he had; but not above 100, if he had even 20,000, which number some individuals are said to have possessed, Athen. Deipnosoph. vi. 20. Hence Seneca speaks of vasta spatia terrarum per vinctos colenda; et familia bellicosis nationibus major de Benef. viii.

Slavery, at a very early period after the Flood, prevailed, perhaps, in every region of the Globe. In Asia it is practised to this day. The savage nations of Africa have at no period been exempted from this opprobrium of our nature. In Germany, and in other countries of Europe, slaves were generally attached to the soil, as in Russia and Poland, at the present day. They were generally employed in tending cattle, and in conducting the business of agriculture, Tacitus de moribus Germanorum. Among the ancient Germans, according to the same author, it was not uncommon for an ardent gamester to stake his personal liberty on a throw of the dice. The latter species of slaves were alone considered as materials of commerce. In England, now so tenacious of the rights of man, a species of slavery, similar to that among the ancient Germans, subsisted, even to the end of the 16th century, as appears from a Commission issued by Queen Elizabeth in 1574. Colliers and salters were not totally emancipated from every vestige of slavery, till about the year 1750. Before that period the sons of colliers could follow no other business, but that of their fathers; nor could they seek employment in any other mines, than in those, to which they were attached by birth. See Encyclop. Brit,

10. and Pliny, of legions of slaves, so that a master needed a person to tell him their names, (nomenclator,) xxxiii. 1. s. 6. So Petronius Arbiter, 37. & 117. Augustus ordained by a law, called Elia Sentia, that no slave, who had ever for the sake of a crime been bound, publicly whipt, tortured, or branded in the face, although freed by his master, should obtain the freedom of the city; but should always remain in the state of the Dedititii, who were indeed free, but could not aspire to the advantages of Roman citizens, Suet. Aug. 40. The reason of this law may be. gathered from Dionys. iv. 24.

Afterwards by the law called Junia Norbana, because it was passed in the consulship of L. Junius Norbanus, A. U. 771. those reed per epistolam, inter amicos, or by the other less solemn methods, did not obtain the rights of Roman citizens, but of the Latins, who were transplanted into colonies. Hence they were called LATINI JUNIANI, or simply LATINI, Plin. Ep. x. 105. Slaves when made free used to shave their heads in the temple of Feronia, and received a cap or hat, as a badge of liberty, Serv. ad Verg. Æn. viii. 564. Liv. xlv. 44. Hence, Ad pileum servum vocare, for ad libertatem, Liv. ibid. They also were presented with a white robe and a ring by their master. They then assumed a prænomen, and prefixed the name of their patron to their own. Thus, Marcus Tullius Tiro, the freedman of Cicero. In allusion to which, Persius says, Verterit hunc Dominus; momento turbinis exit MARCUS Dama, Sat. v. 77. Hence Tanquam habeas tria nomina, for tanquam liber sis, Juvenal. v. 120. So foreigners, when admitted to the freedom of the city, assumed the name of that person, by whose favour they obtained it, Cic. Fam. xiii.

35. 36.

Patrons retained various rights over their freedmen. If the patron was reduced to poverty, the freedman was bound, in the same manner as a son, to support him, according to his abilities. And if a patron failed to support his freedman when poor, he was deprived of the rights of patronage.

If a freedman died intestate, without heirs, the patron sue, ceeded to his effects.

Those freedmen, who proved ungrateful to their patrons, were condemned to the mines (ad lautumias); and the Emperor Claudius, by a law, reduced them to their former slavery, (in servitutem revocavit,) Suet. Claud. 25. Libertum, qui probatus fuerit patrono delatores summisisse, qui de statu ejus facerent ei quæstionem, servum patroni esse jussit, L. 5. Dig. de jure Patron.

RIGHTS of ROMAN CITIZENS, and of the different Inhabitants of the ROMAN EMPIRE.

WHILE Rome was but small and thinly inhabited, whoever fixed their abode in the city or Roman territory, obtained the rights of citizens.

To increase the number of citizens, Romulus opened an asylum or sanctuary for fugitive slaves, insolvent debtors, and malefactors, whither great numbers flocked from the neighbouring states, Liv. i. 8. because no one could be taken from thence to punishment, Id. xxxv. 51. Tac. Ann. iii. 60. Even vanquished enemies were transplanted to Rome, and became citizens. In this manner the freedom of the city was granted by Romulus to the Caninenses, Camerini, Antemnates, Crustumini, and at last also to the Sabines. This example was imitated by his successors, who transplanted the Albans and other vanquished tribes to Rome, Liv. i. 29. 33. Likewise after the expulsion of the kings, the freedom of the city was given to a great many, especially after the taking and burning of the city by the Gauls; at which time, that it might be rebuilt with more splendour, new citizens were assumed from the Vientes, Capenates, and Falisci, Liv. vi. 4.

Besides those who had settled in the Roman territory, and who were divided into city and country tribes, the freedom of the city was granted to several foreign towns, which were called MUNICIPIA, and the inhabitants MUNICIPES, because they might enjoy offices at Rome, (munia v. munera capere poterant.) When any of these fixed their abode at Rome, they became CIVES INGENUI, Cic. Brut. 75. de Legg. ii. 2. Hence it happened, that the same person might enjoy the highest honours both at Rome, and in his own free town. Thus Milo, while he stood candidate for the Consulship at Rome, was Dictator in his own native city, Lanuvium, Cic. pro Mil. 37. The free town in which one was born was called patria GERMANA, naturæ vel loci. Rome, (qua exceptus est,) patria COMMUNIS, civitatis vel juris. Cic. de Legg. ii. 2.

But when the Roman empire was more widely extended, and the dignity of a Roman citizen of course began to be more valued, the freedom of the city (jus civitatis) was more sparingly conferred, and in different degrees, according to the different merits of the allies towards the republic. To some the right of voting, (jus suffragii) was given, and to others not. The people of Cære were the first who obtained the freedom of the city without the right of voting; for having received the sacred things of the Roman people, the Vestal Virgins and priests,

when they fled from the Gauls, A. Gell. xvi. 13. The freedom of the city was soon after given in this manner to the people of Capua, Fundi, Formiæ, Cumæ, and Sinuessa, Liv. viii. 14. to the inhabitants of Acerra, ibid. 17. and of Anagnia, &c.

The inhabitants of Lanuvium, Aricia, Nomentum, Pedum, received the freedom of the city, with the right of voting, Liv. viii. 14. and of Privernum, (Privernates) c. 21. But several cities of the Hernici preferred their own laws, Liv. ix. 43. In process of time, this right was granted to all the allies of the Latin name; and after the social or Italian war, it was communicated to all the Italians south of the River Rubicon on the upper sea, and of the city Luca on the lower sea. Afterwards the same right was granted to Cisalpine Gaul, which hence began to be called Gallia Togata. Augustus was very sparing in conferring the freedom of the city; but the succeeding Emperors were more liberal, and at different times granted it to different cities and nations. At last Caracalla granted the freedom of Roman citizens to all the inhabitants of the Roman world.

Those who did not enjoy the right of citizens were anciently called HOSTES, and afterwards PEREGRINI, Cic. Off. i. 12. After Rome had extended her empire, first over Latium, then over Italy, and lastly over great part of the world, the rights which the subjects of that empire enjoyed, came to be divided into four kinds; which may be called Jus Quiritium, Jus Latii, Jus Italicum, Jus Provinciarum vel Provinciale.

JUS QUIRITIUM comprehended all the rights of Roman citizens, which were different at different times. These rights were either private or public: the former were properly called Jus Quiritium, and the latter Jus Civitatis, Plin. Ep. x. 4. 6. 22. Cic, in Rull. ii. 19. as with us there it a distinction between denization and naturalization.

1. PRIVATE RIGHTS of ROMAN CITIZENS.

THE private rights of Roman citizens were, 1. Jus Libertatis, the right of liberty; 2. Jus Gentilitatis et Familia, the right of family; 3. Jus Connubii, the right of marriage; 4. Jus Patrium, the right of a father; 5. Jus Dominii Legitimi, the right of legal property; 6. Jus Testamenti et Hæreditatis, the right of making a will, and of succeeding to an inheritance; and 7. Jus Tutela, the right of tutelage or wardship.