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Connection

of clauses.

position in Latin answers the effect of our underlining (with voice or pen), our auxiliaries 'do,' &c., or other tricks of emphasis; and therefore auxiliary verbs and relatives (English) will often be suppressed in translation.

Cf. § 5. e. 7, 28; (7) 7; (8) 6; 10, 13; (10) 12; 39, 3, 8.

§ 9. a. The copula is oftener omitted than in EngOmission of lish, even in co-ordinate sentences; e.g. redit juvenis, rem copula. narrat, implorat opem (cf. 1, 2-9; (1) 2-9), and is often replaced by the relative.

Co-ordinate sentences

subordi

Cf. § 5; 43, 11; 45, 5.

B. Co-ordinate (English) sentences must constantly replaced by be replaced by (Latin) subordinate clauses (the frequent nate, repetition of 'and' being thereby avoided); the ablative absolute, deponent and passive past participles, relative, temporal, and other clauses will be used instead.

and by the period.

Cf. 2, 5; (2) 25; 4, 3, 5; (7) 44; 11, 11; 25, 11, 18.

These clauses will as far as possible keep the same subject and object, so that our repetition of pronouns. ('him,' it,' &c.,) will be avoided; e.g. Tunc convocatos quum breviter admonuisset, paullisper moratus secum eduxit.

Cf. § 6; (4) 5, 28; (6) 4, 7; (7) 25, &c.

7. They will be grouped (subordinately to the main idea or action) in natural logical order of time, aim, cause and effect, connected by relatives, or antithetically by position alone, autem, quidem, vero often coming in where we use 'and' or 'while.' Cause, object, qualification or manner (causal, final, modal clauses) generally precede the main action, consecutive clauses follow, comparative follow or precede; except where the order is changed for emphasis or connexion of ideas, or where the object of an action is identical with or suggests its consequent result; e.g. faces admovit ut aedem accenderet.

Cf. § 4 €; 3, 8—11; 5, 16—20; 15, 1-5; 17, 4—7.

Long sentences thus grouped, with the main verb reserved till the close, are called periods, and are commoner in history than in oratory or letters. Cf. Livy 1. 6 and 1. 16, &c.

In parenthetical clauses, where we use a relative clause, or a clause in apposition without a verb [e. g. one of them named (or who was named) Manus; &c., Unus ex his, Manus ei nomen erat], a co-ordinate sentence without or with a copula is often found in Latin. Cf. 3, 1, 4; 7, 30; 24, 15; 25, 28; 33, 10; 34, 12; 39, 23. For other parentheses cf. 14, 5; 24, 5, 27; 43,17; 44, 23; 48, 8; 54, 14.

tives, §§ 10

14.

Repetition

of subject in

§ 10. A proper name, as subject or object, is oftener Substanrepeated in English than in Latin. We often vary the repetition by a periphrasis, 'the old man,' 'the general,' &c. In both cases is, ille (if anything is wanted) will be found generally sufficient in Latin.

Cf. (4) 30; (25) 4, 22, 26; (45) 19.

Where the proper name is so used in Latin it generally comes first, and is emphatic or distinctive.

Cf. 1, 14; 4, 11; 15, 1; 18, 17.

So too when, in English, descriptive nominatives are tacked on to relative clauses, the relative alone will be used in Latin. 'The sailors who had jumped down' = qui desiluerant. Cf. 13, 21, 31.

And the same rule holds in the case of other subjects and objects repeated in English to round the sentence, or balance it antithetically.

Cf. (2) 12, 15, 17, 25, 29; (3) 8, 17, 22; (15) 9; (16) 23.

When however, as in § 18, a new idea is thus thrown in allusively, it may be expressed in Latin, but directly, by a separate clause; e. g. 'the veteran general was not to be deceived so easily:' cf. (14) 7.

English.

Connection

of clauses.

position in Latin answers the effect of our underlining (with voice or pen), our auxiliaries 'do,' &c., or other tricks of emphasis; and therefore auxiliary verbs and relatives (English) will often be suppressed in translation.

Cf. § 5. e. 7, 28; (7) 7; (8) 6; 10, 13; (10) 12; 39, 3, 8.

§ 9. a. The copula is oftener omitted than in EngOmission of lish, even in co-ordinate sentences; e.g. redit juvenis, rem copula. narrat, implorat opem (cf. 1, 2-9; (1) 2-9), and is often replaced by the relative.

Co-ordinate sentences

subordi

Cf. § 5; 43, 11; 45, 5.

B. Co-ordinate (English) sentences must constantly replaced by be replaced by (Latin) subordinate clauses (the frequent nate, repetition of 'and' being thereby avoided); the ablative absolute, deponent and passive past participles, relative, temporal, and other clauses will be used instead.

and by the period.

Cf. 2, 5; (2) 25; 4, 3, 5; (7) 44; 11, 11; 25, 11, 18.

These clauses will as far as possible keep the same subject and object, so that our repetition of pronouns ('him,' it,' &c.,) will be avoided; e.g. Tunc convocatos quum breviter admonuisset, paullisper moratus secum eduxit.

Cf. § 6; (4) 5, 28; (6) 4, 7; (7) 25, &c.

7. They will be grouped (subordinately to the main idea or action) in natural logical order of time, aim, cause and effect, connected by relatives, or antithetically by position alone, autem, quidem, vero often coming in where we use 'and' or 'while.' Cause, object, qualification or manner (causal, final, modal clauses) generally precede the main action, consecutive clauses follow, comparative follow or precede; except where the order is changed for emphasis or connexion of ideas, or where the object of an action is identical with or suggests its consequent result; e.g. faces admovit ut aedem accenderet.

Cƒ. § 4 e ; 3, 8—11; 5, 16—20; 15, 1—5; 17, 4—7.

Long sentences thus grouped, with the main verb reserved till the close, are called periods, and are commoner in history than in oratory or letters. Cf. Livy 1. 6 and 1. 16, &c.

In parenthetical clauses, where we use a relative clause, or a clause in apposition without a verb [e. g. one of them named (or who was named) Manus; &c., Unus ex his, Manus ei nomen erat], a co-ordinate sentence without or with a copula is often found in Latin. Cf. 3, 1, 4; 7, 30; 24, 15; 25, 28; 33, 10; 34, 12; 39, 23. For other parentheses cf. 14, 5; 24, 5, 27; 43, 44, 23; 48, 8; 54, 14.

17;

tives, §§ 10

14.

Repetition

§ 10. A proper name, as subject or object, is oftener Substanrepeated in English than in Latin. We often vary the repetition by a periphrasis, 'the old man,' the general,' &c. In both cases is, ille (if anything is wanted) will be found generally sufficient in Latin.

Cf. (4) 30; (25) 4, 22, 26; (45) 19.

Where the proper name is so used in Latin it generally comes first, and is emphatic or distinctive.

Cf. 1, 14; 4, 11; 15, 1; 18, 17.

So too when, in English, descriptive nominatives are tacked on to relative clauses, the relative alone will be used in Latin. 'The sailors who had jumped down' = qui desiluerant. Cf. 13, 21, 31.

And the same rule holds in the case of other subjects and objects repeated in English to round the sentence, or balance it antithetically.

Cf. (2) 12, 15, 17, 25, 29; (3) 8, 17, 22; (15) 9; (16) 23.

When however, as in § 18, a new idea is thus thrown in allusively, it may be expressed in Latin, but directly, by a separate clause; e. g. 'the veteran general was not to be deceived so easily:' cf. (14) 7.

of subject in English.

Substanti

val pleo

nasms.

Less fre

quent use of substan

A feeling

§ 11. a. Double phrases to express single ideas are often used in English, single terms in Latin. of shame' = pudor quidam.

Cf. (2) 8; (9) 21, 25; (10) 2; (16) 28; (22) 34, 35, 39.

B. Effete metaphors, needless synonyms and repetitions, and conventional periphrases (English) will be replaced in Latin by the simplest terms, or omitted.

As instances may be given the words object, point, feature, circumstance, instance, capacity, relation, terms, person, expression, elements, incident, purport, idea, substance, theory, step, view, department, sphere, contingency, emergency, consideration, issue. A few stock terms or phrases are found in Latin: the various meanings of ars, res, locus, studium, genus, ratiò, vis, sententia, may be compared. The frequency of them in English is due partly to the want of genders in adjectives, which necessitates the use of neuter substantives, partly to the love of variety, partly to the composite elements of the language, which provide synonyms in abundance.

The want of such synonyms in Latin often makes it impossible to reproduce some of our finer shades of thought and expression; and words like res, ratio, &c., become too vague and indefinite.

Cf. 2, 1, 12, 22; (2) 2, 14, 24; (4) 3, 16; (6) 4, 6; (7) 48; (11) 2, 7, 17, &c.

γ. The repetition, in comparisons and other connexions, of the substantive or its equivalent, or of the word 'one,' 'ones,' is unnecessary in Latin; e. g. magnae majora sunt vitia quam parvæ urbis; such substantive when referring to two adjectives, &c., generally comes after the second, in the singular if the two ideas are singular and separate, in the plural if they are joined as a plural idea; cf. 16, 15.

Cf. § 16 c. 5, 12; 25, 30; 26, 41, 62; 44, 3.

§ 12. Substantives are not used so much in Latin as by us, and must often in translation be (a) taken into the

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