Adjectives replaced by adverbs

or by verbs, or substantives.

Adjectives

as predicates.

Superla

tives, comparatives, and positives interchanged.

B. However the relative or some other verbal clause will often have to be used instead; e. g. 'naturally cruel and passionate he now gave full play to his passions,' quum (ut qui) natura savus et impotens esset, libidinibus se totum dedidit.

21. The adjective or participle in one language often replaces the adverb in the other; e. g. Invitus veni, 'I came unwillingly;' sero veni, 'I was late in coming.'

Simple Latin adjectives, especially those in -osus, are used for English substantival expressions; e. g. difficilis, periculosus, &c., 'attended with difficulty, danger,' &c.; saevum, 'marked with cruelty;' cruentus, 'stained with blood.'

Cf. (4) 24; 8, 9; 36, 25, 27.

§ 22. Many (English) adjectives like 'useless,' 'possible,' 'impracticable,' 'usual,' have to be rendered by verbal clauses; e. g. qua soles lima, 'with your usual criticism;' rem et posse et debere fieri, 'that the measure was both practicable and expedient;' and Latin adjectives, also, by English substantival or verbal clauses; e. g. impotens, capax, &c.

So also English participles when equivalent to clauses; Cf. § 18. § 25. (49) 32.

Cf. (14) 20, 21; (20) 4, 15; (22) 7.

§ 23. The adjective is constantly used as the main predicate with verbs in Latin; e.g. Primus abiit; novissima exuitur laudis cupido.

§ 24. a. Superlatives in one language replace comparatives in the other;

e.g. Uter horum doctior? Which of these is the cleverest? Prior ego, 'I was first to speak.'

quo nihil iniquius, 'a most unfair course.'
Cf. 3, 16; (6) 5; (32) 2; 36, 2.

B. The Latin comparative is often rendered by our 'too,' as in 'too great,' majus quam quod fieri possit; 'too great for lightning,' majores fulguribus, or quam fulgura, (26, 27); often by our rather' or 'so:' or by a simple positive; e. g. in the Latin, fortior quam felicior.

Cf. 7, 13; 19, 32; 22, 2, 16; 33, 14; 36, 2; 45, 26; 51, 15. . 7. The positive replaces the superlative, especially in English, our superlative being often awkward in form, and less used; Cato vir justissimus, 'That just man Cato.' Cf. 21, 8-11; 33, 3; 37, 49; 38, 16.

8. Latin superlatives mean not only 'most' but 'very;' optimus = 'best,' 'one of the best,' 'very good,' or simply 'good.'

Cf. 36, 1; 43, 4; 45, 23; 48, 9.

€. Comparisons are made in Latin usually by simple co-ordinate clauses, the copula or relative replacing our 'as,' 'than,' &c.; tantus ille quantus ego means strictly 'he is so great, and I am so great;' ille æque atque ego, ‘he equally, and I equally.'

Participles used.

§ 25. a. The Latin present participle active is not so Present freely used as in English, cf. §§ 18, 22, 31; the English-when not participle being often replaced (i) by the infinitive; e.g. (26) 39, cf. 26, 23; or by (ii) the historic imperfect or infinitive, as in descriptions, cf. (26) 15, and 26, 40; (iii) or by prepositions, cf. § 14; or (iv) by a co-ordinate clause, as in 31, 19;

e.g. (i) mutari omnia videmus, 'we see all things changing.'

(ii) pars arma capere, alii fugere, plerique metu torpebant, 'some seizing arms, others running away, most standing paralyzed with fear.'

(iii) ob haec, de hoc, 'owing to this, concerning this.' (iv) caelum est mitissimum: oleas et vites profert; 'the climate is mild, producing both the vine and olive.'

N.

Present participle

when used.

Pres. part. passive and neuter.

Past Participles.

B. The Lat. pres. part. is strictly present and marks simultaneous action; loose English participles, present in form only, must be translated by past participle, quum with past subjunctive, postquam with indicative, &c.; e.g. 'so saying, he left the house,' quum haec dixisset e domo exiit.

Cf. 2, 1, 6, 14; 3, 19, 21; 8, 5, 13, &c.

'Pendent' impersonal participles, like 'considering,' 'excepting,' 'counting,' and even strictly present participles, may have to be translated by dum (mostly with pres. indic.), si (mostly with fut. perfect), quum and a verb, past. part., ablative absolute, &c. Cf. 24, 40, 41; 31, 3.

7. Subject to these rules the pres. part. may be used in temporal, causal, conditional, modal, concessive senses.

Cf. 2, 14, 24; 3, 4, 22; 7, 29; 8, 21; 13, 14, 39; 20, 35; 22, 34-6; 24, 35, 40; 29, 30; 47, 2.

8. It is frequently used in oblique cases where we use verbal clauses, cogitanti saepe occurrit.

Cf. 3, 9; 38, 30; 39, 15.

e. It is constantly used in oblique cases (rarely in the nominative), especially in the genitive plural (as in Greek with the article), for classes of men or things. Cf. $$ 41, 42 a.

Cf. 2, 15; 7, 20; 9, 4; 24, 47; 26, 36; 33, 14; 34, 8; 48, 9.

. The present participle passive is wanting in Latin, and is replaced by verbal clause or the past participle passive in some cases.

Cf. 3, 10; 5, 7; 7, 31; 13, 34.

η. The present participle of English neuter verbs will often have to be replaced by the past participle passive; e.g. Inde ad suos conversus. Cf. 7, 8; 13, 9.

§ 26. a. The past participle active, being wanting in Latin except in deponents, is generally expressed by

quum, ut qui, &c., with the subjunctive, ubi, postquam, with the indicative, ablative absolute, or simple adjective, or by past participle passive in agreement with object; e.g. vinctos (or quum vinxisset) eduxit.

Cf. § 25 B; 11, 1; 14, 1, &c.

B. The past participle passive is often translated by prepositions or the ablative of a noun ('prompted by’= ex, propter).

Cf. (24), 23; (25) 24.

7. The Latin past participle, from want of an article, cannot, as a rule, be used (as in Greek) for a substantive, though occasionally so used, as the present § 25 €.

8. nor for an adjective. Cf. § 18 y.

-29.

Present,&c.,

§ 27. a. The vague English present tense must Verbs, §§ 27 often be replaced by future, futurum exactum, perfect or Tensespresent subjunctive; and the perfect similarly by the inexact use pluperfect; the future by the futurum exactum; e.g. scribes si quid habebis, 47, 10; quae formaveram dicto, 34, 10.

B. The English perfect, e.g. 'is written, &c.,' scriptum est, must be carefully distinguished from the present of the same form, scribitur.

Cf. 29, 33; 34, 2; (36) 10; (38) 5, 15, 19, 24, 26; (42) 3; (46) 16; (49) 12, 21; 52, 5; (53) 12.

in English.

nasms and

§ 28. a. In verbs as in nouns, (English) conventional Verbal pleoperiphrastic expressions and obsolete metaphors must be periphrases in English. replaced by simpler and more direct terms.

'He observed, remarked, replied, continued' = inquit (often omitted); and so ago, capio, esse, habere, ire, posse, facere, will often translate more artificial terms like 'manage,' 'discuss,' 'embrace,' 'exist,' 'constitute,' 'deliver,' &c. The verbs 'to avail one's self,' 'assure,' 'represent,' 'allude,' 'qualify,' 'convey,' 'communicate,' 'enhance,' will furnish other instances in some of their uses.

Verbal pleo

nasms.

Strict use of tenses in Latin.

Cf. 6, 1; 12, 21; (1) 26; (2) 2; (4) 6:

34, 39.

14, 3, 9; 15, 11; 25, 19; 31, 17; 35, 5; and (5) 10; (6) 13; (7) 31; (9) 24; (22) 25, 30,

B. Antithetical repetitions of the verb (or of its equivalent) are mostly suppressed in Latin where unemphatic, one verb serving for two or more clauses.

Cf. (2) 13, 29; 7, 21.

y. Where the Latin verb is repeated, we, in English, use a synonym for variety, or the auxiliaries 'did,' 'had,' &c., to represent the verb; but cf. 10, 15 and 21, 16, 17.

8. Many verbs disappear altogether in translation, as 'succeeded in,' 'managed to,' 'failed to,' 'continued to,' 'ended in,' 'keep,' 'cease,' 'begin,' 'get,' 'find,' &c. (cf. § 29 y), or are only represented by adverbs, § 36.

Cf. (15) 19; 23, 3, 14; (23) 16; (26) 4, 13, 35, 75; 44, 9.

6

So also participles, marked with cruelty,'' attended by circumstances,' &c.; 'a slave called Dama,' Dama quidam.

Cf. § 21; 23, 3, 14; (24) 8.

§ 29. a. Tenses (Latin) keep their strict time; use therefore for continued incomplete actions the imperfect, for single complete acts the aorist perfect, (where we use the same tense for both): and the pluperfect where the action has preceded that of the perfect or imperfect, as you use the perfect when the action has preceded that of a present.

β. Remember that scripsi is έγραψα, γεγραφα, Ypayas exw, (scriptum habeo); that erat is not the same as fuit which (as vixit) conveys an idea of completed (sometimes terminated) existence, and is less often used; erat standing as an aorist instead, owing to the intrinsic idea of verbs of existence.

γ.

The Latin imperfect is often best translated by the periphrastic 'proceed' 'keep,' 'continue,' 'get,' &c.,