One equivalent of hydrogen
One equivalent of iodine
Equivalent

1

126

127

Iodic Acid. This compound was first obtained by Davy | hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid, and iodine is set free. by the action of iodine upon what he called euchlorine gas. It is composed of A better process has however been proposed by Mr. Connell, which consists in heating the iodine in the strongest nitric acid. For this purpose the acid should be introduced with about a fifth of its weight of iodine into a tube about an inch wide and 15 inches long, and sealed at one end, and these materials are to be kept boiling for 12 hours; the iodine which rises and condenses on the sides of the tube is to be returned to the acid either by a glass tube or by agitation; when the iodine disappears, the excess of nitric acid is to be got rid of by evaporation. Iodic acid is a white semitransparent solid substance, which is inodorous, but has an astringent sour taste. It is so dense as to sink in sulphuric acid, and it deliquesces in a moist atmosphere. It is very soluble in water; the solution reddens vegetable blue colours; it detonates when mixed and heated with charcoal, sugar, and sulphur. It combines with metallic oxides to form salts, which are termed iodates, and these, like the chlorates, yield oxygen when heated; and an iodide remains. Iodic acid is composed of

Equivalent 166
Oxiodic or Periodic Acid.-When chlorine is added to
saturation to a solution of iodate of soda with excess of the
alkali and concentrated by evaporation, a sparingly soluble
white salt is obtained, which is oxiodate of soda; when
this is dissolved in dilute nitric acid and mixed with nitrate
of silver, a yellow precipitate falls, which, dissolved in hot
nitric acid and evaporated, yields orange-coloured crystals
of oxiodate of silver; these are decomposed by cold water,
and an aqueous solution of pure oxiodic acid is formed;
this by cautious evaporation yields hydrated crystals, and
these, when heated to 212°, are resolved into oxygen and
iodic acid. It consists of

Seven equivalents of oxygen 8 × 7
One equivalent of iodine

Equivalent

= 56

126

182

Azote and Iodine form iodide of azote. This compound cannot be obtained by direct action, on account of the weakness of the affinity existing between its elements. It is prepared by putting iodine into an aqueous solution of ammonia, which being decomposed, its hydrogen forms hydriodic acid with one portion of the iodine, whilst the azote combining with another portion of it, the result is iodide, or, correctly speaking, teriodide of azote, which remains insoluble in the state of a dark brown powder. This compound is very explosive, especially when dry: the best method of exhibiting its power is that of allowing it to dry in small portions on bibulous paper, and then simply letting it fall on the ground or merely touching it, it detonates with a sharp noise, heat and light being emitted, and the vapour of iodine and azotic gas are evolved. It is not dangerously explosive. It is composed of

One equivalent of azote

Three equivalents of iodine 126 x 3 = 378

Equivalent 392

Hydrogen and Iodine form hydriodic acid, which may be prepared by the direct combination of its elements. When a mixture of iodine in vapour and hydrogen gas is passed through a red-hot porcelain tube, they combine to form this acid. It is however much more conveniently formed by heating in a retort one part of phosphorus and about 12 parts of iodine moistened with water; by the mutual action of these substances the water is decomposed, its oxygen combines with the phosphorus, forming phosphoric acid, while the hydrogen unites with the iodine to form hydriodic acid, which passes over in the state of a colourless gas. This acid has a sour taste, reddens vegetable blues, and when mixed with atmospheric air forms dense white fumes with its moisture: its odour resembles that of hydrochloric acid gas. It is soluble in water. The salts which it forms are termed hydriodates; but when it is acted upon by metals, hydrogen is evolved, and when by metallic oxides, water is formed, and in both cases iodides are the result.

It is decomposed by oxygen when they are heated together; water is formed, and iodine evolved. It is also immediately decomposed by chlorine, which unites with its

One volume of it consists of half a volume of hydrogen gas and half a volume of the vapour of iodine. Chlorine and Iodine appear to form three chlorides. The protochloride may be obtained by passing a current of chlorine gas into water in which chlorine is suspended; a deep reddish solution is formed, which yields irritating fumes possessing the smell of both the elements; it first reddens and then bleaches litmus paper. The terchloride may be formed by repeatedly distilling the protochloride. The perchloride when decomposed by water gives rise to hydrochloric and iodic acids. The opinions of chemists with respect to these compounds are yet somewhat at variance.

Sulphur and Iodine is formed by heating gently a mixture of 1 part of sulphur and 4 parts of iodine. The product is of a dark colour, and has a radiated structure; it is easily decomposed by heat.

Iodine and Phosphorus combine readily without the application of heat; and so much heat is evolved by their action that the phosphorus takes fire if the experiment be made in the open air; but in close vessels no light appears. The composition of iodides of phosphorus is rather uncertain; that which is probably a protiodide is formed with one part of phosphorus and seven or eight parts of iodine; it has an orange colour, fuses at 212°, and when heated sublimes without changing; it is decomposed by and decomposes water, forming with its elements hydriodic and phosphorous acids, while phosphorus is set free. It is probably composed of One equivalent of iodine

126

One equivalent of phosphorus 16
Equivalent 142

The sesquiodide is formed by the action of 1 part of
phosphorus and 12 parts of iodine. It is a dark grey crys-
talline mass, which fuses at 84°, and with water yields
hydriodic and phosphorous acids. It is composed of
One and a half equivalent of iodine
One equivalent of phosphorus

Equivalent

189

16

205

The periodide is prepared with 1 part of phosphorus and 20 of iodine; it is a black compound, fusible at 114°. By the action of water it yields hydriodic and phosphoric acids, and hence it is inferred to consist of

Two and a half equivalents of iodine 315
One equivalent of phosphorus

Equivalent

16

331

Iodine and Carbon unite to form two compounds, but not by direct action. They are not important, and their composition has not been ascertained.

The compounds of iodine and metals are mentioned under each metal.

IODINE, Medicinal Properties of. Iodine, though only obtained in an isolated state of late years, has been long employed as the efficient principle of other preparations and therapeutic agents, namely, burnt sponge and certain mine ral waters. It is only since it has been procured as a distinct principle that its action has been ascertained with precision. In the present day it is administered rather in some artifi cial compound than as pure iodine, owing to its very sparing solubility in water. Iodine in substance, however, when applied to the skin, stains it brown, and even the very small quantity which can be dissolved in water is sufficient to cause rubefaction, and in the form of baths produces decided action both on the surface of the body and the general system. When applied to ulcers or any breach of the skin, it occasions heat and a sense of pricking and tingling; it is also absorbed, and may be discovered in the blood and the secretions of the patient. Taken internally, even in small doses, it causes a sense of heat in the mouth and throat; if much diluted by the vehicle in which it is given, and the stomach be healthy, it appears to do little more than increase the digestive powers; but in larger and stronger doses it creates great heat in the region of the stomach, which becomes sensible to pressure, with a feeling of

weight, heartburn, and often nausea and vomiting. In |
very large doses it acts as an irritant poison. It is not
merely an irritant poison when taken in a large dose, but is
a slow or accumulative poison, even when taken in medici-
nal doses for a length of time. It has been generally
represented as causing emaciation even to a frightful extent;
but though this has occurred in some instances, it does not
seem to be frequent, if we except the absorption of certain
glands, especially the mammæ of females.

The diseases in which it has been found useful are glandular swellings, especially bronchocele or goître, which rarely resists its action; in some strumous diseases, in chronic rheumatism, and also as an antidote against poisoning with strychnia, brucia, and verataria: but its claims to confidence are not clear in case of such formidable poisons. It is often of use in lessening the injurious effects of mercury and in the treatment of the sequelae of syphilis. (See Lugol, On Scrofula.)

tumor on one of its sides. Montagu extracted it, and kept it alive for some days. The females are always accompanied by their males, which are very inferior in size, and fix themselves firmly upon the abdominal appendages of the former by means of their claws. Latreille, whose account we have given, speaks of it as rare, and remarks that in its habits it approaches to Bopyrus. [ISOPODA.]

I

b

IONA, also known by the names of I-Colm-Kill and Hii or I, is one of the Hebrides, in the district of Mull, and belonging to the shire of Argyle. It is situated on the western side of the Isle of Mull, from which it is separated by a narrow channel called the 'Sound of I.' Its length is three miles, and at its widest part it is about one mile in breadth. The general aspect of the country is rugged and mountainous, and the surface for the most part consists of moor and bog occasionally varied by a patch of green pas- IO'NIA and IONIANS. Ionians is the name of one of ture. The village is a miserable collection of huts inha- the various peoples included in antient history under the bited by a population of about 450 people. There seems general name of Hellenes or Greeks. [ACHEI; EOLIANS; to be no doubt that the island was antiently inhabited by DORIANS.] The origin of the Ionians is involved in great Druids, who were expelled by the Christians about the time obscurity. The name only occurs in the Iliad once, and in that St. Columba came to Britain (A.D. 565), and the inha- the form Iaones' (N. 685); but not many years after the bitants still point out the spot where this holy man is tra- war of Troy, the Ionians appear as settled in Attica, and ditionally said to have been interred. The religious insti- also in the northern part of the Peloponnesus, along the tutions established by the Christians remained unmolested coast of the Corinthian Gulf. Herodotus (viii. 44) says for nearly 200 years; but about the beginning of the ninth that the Athenians were originally Pelasgi, but that after century the Danes made a descent upon the island, and, Ion, the son of Xuthus, became the leader of the forces of with their accustomed barbarity, put to death the greater the Athenians, the people got the name of Ionians. It part of the monks, forcing the remainder to seek safety in appears probable that the Ionians, like the Eolians, were flight. At the dissolution of the monastic institutions the a conquering tribe from the mountains of Thessaly, and revenues were united to the see of Argyle, and upon the that at an unknown period they migrated southwards and abolition of episcopacy they became the property of the settled in Attica and part of the Peloponnesus, probably duke. At the present time the island is chiefly interesting mixing with the native Pelasgi. The genealogy of Ion, the on account of its numerous architectural and other anti-reputed son of Xuthus, seems to be a legend under which quities, for a full account of which we must refer the reader is veiled the early history of the Ionian occupation of Attica. to Dr. Macculloch's Highlands and Western Isles of Scot- Euripides, in order to flatter the Athenians, makes Ion the land.' The cathedral or abbey church is surmounted by a son of Apollo. Whatever may be the historical origin of the lofty tower, which is supported by four arches adorned with Ionian name, Athenians and Ionians came to be considered figures in basso rilievo. The choir is handsome, and the as one and the same people. [ATHENS.] In the Peloponlarge eastern window is a beautiful specimen of the Gothic nesus the Ionians occupied the northern coast of the peninstyle, although its light and elegant workmanship has been sula, which was then called Ionia, and also Ægialæan Ionia; much injured by time. In the fore court are two finely and the sea which separates Peloponnesus from Southern cut crosses; one called St. Martin's is formed of a single Italy assumed the name of Ionian Sea, a circumstance piece of red granite, 14 feet in length. The cathedral itself which would seem to indicate the extent and prevalence is dedicated to St. Mary, and, according to Boethius, was of the Ionian name. This appellation of Ionian Sea was built by Malduinus in the seventh century, but Dr. Mac- retained among the later Greeks and the Romans, and it culloch thinks this at least seven centuries too soon. is perpetuated to the present day among the Italians. When the Dorians invaded the Peloponnesus, about 1100 years B.C., the Achæi being driven from thence gathered towards the north, and occupied Ionia, which after that time took the name of Achæa. The Ionians of the Peloponnesus emigrated to Attica, whence, being straightened for want of space, and perhaps also harassed by the Dorians, they resolved to seek their fortune beyond the sea, under the guidance of the sons of Codrus, the last king of Athens. This was the great Ionian migration, as it is called. The emigrants consisted of natives of Attica, as well as of Ionian refugees from the Peloponnesus, and a motley band from other parts of Greece (Herod. i. 146). But this migration can perhaps hardly be considered as one single event: there seem to have been many and various migrations of Ionians, some of which were probably anterior to the Dorian conquest. Thus the Ionians established colonies in most of the Cyclades, such as Naxos, Andros, Paros, and Delos, and also in Euboea. The emigrants who proceeded to the coast of Asia, under their leader Neleus, took Miletus, which was then inhabited by the Carians. Miletus seems to have fallen to the share of the Athenian Ionians, who, according to the frequent custom of those times, massacred all the men, and kept the women for themselves. They also colonized Myus and Priene, near the banks of the Mæander. Another party of Ionians under Androclus took possession of Ephesus, and drove away the Leleges and

Ioue thoracica. o, Female; b, Male. (Montagu, Linn. Trans.) N.B.-M. Milne Edwards (ed. Lamarck, 1838) remarks, that all the figures referred to are copied from those of Montagu, and are very bad. Montagu states that the crustacean on which these parasites are found is rare, but that, in the few that he had obtained, two or three pairs of the parasites had occurred.

(Beauties of Scotland; Macculloch's Highlands, &c.) IONE, or as it is sometimes written, JÖNE, a parasitic genus of crustaceans, placed by Desmarest under the Isopoda, but by Latreille, who established the subgenus, under the Amphipoda. The latter founded his separation on the figure given by Montagu under the denomination of Oniscus thoracicus (Linn. Trans., ix. iii., 3, 4); and observes that it presents particular characters which place it at a distance from all the other forms of the order. The body is composed of about fifteen joints, which are only to be distinguished by lateral incisions in the form of teeth. The four antennæ are very short: the external ones, longer than the two others, are only visible when the animal is seen on the back. The two first segments of the body in the female are each provided with two elongated, fleshy, flattened, oarlike cirrhi. The feet are short, hidden under the body, and hooked. The six last segments are furnished with lateral, fleshy, elongated, fasciculated appendages, which are simple in the males, but in the form of oars in the other sex. At the posterior extremity of the body are six other appendages, which are simple and curved, two of them being longer than the others. The abdominal valves are very large, cover all the lower part of the body, and form a species of receptacle for the eggs.

Habits.-This parasite hides itself under the shell of Callianassa subterranea [CALLIANASSA], and there forms a

Carian inhabitants. [EPHESUS.] They likewise occupied Lebedos and Colophon, the latter of which towns was inhabited by Cretans, who appear to have amalgamated with the Ionian colonists. Further north Teos, which had been built by the Eolians, received also an Ionian colony, as well as Erythræ on the coast facing the island of Chios. On the north coast of the same peninsula Clazomena was founded afterwards by a colony from Colophon, and later still Phocæa was colonized by adventurers from Phocis and Ionians from Attica on a territory north of the Hermus, which belonged originally to the Cumæans of Eolia. The above towns, with the two islands of Chios and Samos, which the Ionians likewise colonized, formed the confederation of the twelve cities of Ionia. Smyrna being seized by Colophonian exiles (according to Herodotus), was in course of time added to the confederation. Other colonies from the twelve cities were built along the coast, such as Geræ, Myonnesus, Claros, &c.

satrap, urged his fellow-countrymen the Ionians to revolt, to expel their tyrants, and to establish democracy. He set the example by resigning his power. Hecateus, who saw the danger of rousing the formidable power of Persia, in vain opposed this rash measure. Aristagoras proceeded to Athens, and obtained the assistance of a fleet. The Athenians and Ionians united marched to Sardis, and plundered and burnt the city, but the Persians coming in great force, the confederates were defeated, and the Athenians withdrew from the contest. The Ionian fleet was strong at sea, but could not prevent the satrap Artaphernes from attacking and taking their cities by land. Clazomenæ was taken and destroyed, but the inhabitants some time after built a new town upon an island near the coast. Miletus was captured after a gallant defence, most of the inhabitants were killed, and the rest were transplanted into Persia, where Darius gave them lands and a settlement. The territory of Miletus was given up to Persian or Lydian colonists. Thus ended, This confederation appears to have been mainly united about 494 B.C., the Ionian revolt, which lasted six years. by a common religious worship and the celebration of a Miletus however seems to have recovered from its ruin after periodical festival; and it seems that the deputies of the a time, and the victories of the Greeks over Xerxes had the several states only met in times of great difficulty. The effect of restoring the fugitives to their respective cities. place of assembly was the Panionium, at the foot of Mount After the battle of Mycale (B.C. 479), and the victories of Mycale, where a temple, built on neutral ground, was dedi- Cimon, the Greeks became absolute masters of the sea, and cated to Poseidon. In the old Ionia (afterwards called the Persians did not venture near the coast. The Athenians, Achæa), Poseidon was also the national deity, and his who had taken the lead in the close of the Persian war, now temple continued at Helice till that city was destroyed by obtained a kind of supremacy on the eastern coast of the the great earthquake. That the settlers in Asia should gean, and the Ionian cities acknowledged Athens as their retain their national worship is a circumstance perfectly in leader and the arbiter of their disputes. At the close and accordance with the history of colonization, and confirma- after the conclusion (B.c. 404) of the Peloponnesian war, tory, if confirmation were wanted, of the European origin of the Lacedæmonians gained the ascendency, and the towns the Ionians of Asia. We have no materials for a history of Asia changed protectors. Accordingly we find Agesilaus of these cities of Ionia as a political community, and no reconciling their intestine feuds, and professing, as the object reason for supposing that their political union came near of his expedition into Asia, to secure their independence. the exact notion of a federation, as some have conjectured. But by the peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C., the towns on the Asiatic Ionia extended from the Cumaan gulf on the continent of Asia were given up to the king of Persia, who north to Mount Grius and the gulf Basilicus south of however does not appear to have treated them harshly, for Miletus, a length of not more than 100 miles in a straight | many of them were in a prosperous state at the time of Alexline, but with a coast three times that length, owing to ander's expedition. After the battle of the Granicus the the many sinuosities and the form of the large Cherso- democratic party at Ephesus and other towns resumed the nesus opposite Chios. The Ionian territory did not extend upper hand, and Alexander gave them his countenance, at inland above 40 miles from the coast as far as Mounts the same time forbidding them strictly from offering any Sipylus and Tmolus. It bordered on the north upon the further violence to the vanquished aristocracy. Miletus territory of Pergamus, Cumæ, and other Eolian cities alone did not submit; it sent proposals however to Alexwhich had been colonized several generations before the ander, offering to remain neutral, but the conqueror Ionian immigration, and on the south upon Caria, where sternly repulsed the proposal: the town was taken by the Dorian colonies formed, some time later, a small con- storm, and most of the inhabitants put to the sword. It federation. The principal rivers of lonia were the Hermus, docs not seem to have ever after completely recovered from the Caystrus, and the Mæander, all three flowing from the that blow; and the gradual deposits of the Mæander, which interior with a western course into the Ægean. [ANATOLIA.] have totally changed the appearance of the coast, contriThe Asiatic Ionians early attained a high degree of com- buted to its depression. Miletus, once a seaport town, mercial and maritime prosperity. Miletus alone is said to is now eight miles from the sca, and the island of Lade, have founded 75 towns or colonies. They became wealthy, which stood at the entrance of its harbour, is become part refined, and luxurious. The remains of their monuments of the mainland. Miletus however was still a town of prove their taste for the arts, and their temples and public some consequence under the Romans, and under the Bybuildings rivalled those of European Greece. The litera-zantine emperors, till the twelfth century, when it was ture of Grecce may be said to have originated on the coast ravaged by the Turks. There are now only a few huts of Asia Minor. The historian Hecatæus was a native of amidst its ruins inhabited by some Turkish families, but Miletus; Thales, one of the earliest philosophers, was from the place retains the pompous name of Palatska, or the the same country. Anacreon was a native of Teos; and palaces.' Chandler found remains of a vast theatre, and Herodotus, though a Dorian, adopted, in his History, the also of the famous temple of Apollo Didymæus in its neighlanguage of his Ionian neighbours. bourhood, with several of the columns still standing. Under the Roman empire several of the other cities of Ionia still maintained the rank of wealthy cities, such as Smyrna and Ephesus. The best account of the actual state of the remains of the Ionian cities is in Chandler's Travels in Asia Minor, and the Ionian Antiquities, published by the Dilettanti Society, 2 vols. fol., with handsome plates. (See also Leake's Map of Asia Minor; Macfarlane's Constantinople in 1828; and Chishull's Asiatic Antiquities; Herodotus, i. 141-151; Strabo, lib. xiv.; Pausanias, vii. 1-5.)

The Lydian kings, whose capital was at Sardis, made war against the Ionian states, who only obtained peace and preserved a kind of independence by paying tribute, but they were finally subdued by Croesus. They remained faithful to the Lydians, when attacked by Cyrus (B.c. 546), in consequence of which, that monarch having subdued the Lydians, sent his general Harpagus to reduce Ionia. Harpagus took and destroyed Phocæa, and the surviving inhabitants fled by sea, and founded Massilia (Marseille) on the coast of Gaul. About the same time many of the Teians left their country and founded Abdera in Thrace. Priene was taken by Harpagus, and the inhabitants were sold as slaves. Miletus and the other cities obtained peace on the same conditions as they had accepted under the kings of Lydia. In almost every town there were two parties, aristocratic and democratic, and the Persian kings or their satraps generally favoured the former, and thus it happened that most of the Greek cities in Asia came to be ruled by tyrants, or individuals who possessed the sovereign power. Aristagoras, who was deputy tyrant of Miletus in the time of the first Darius, having quarrelled with the Persian

13,605 33,4154,475 12,880 116,657 46,386 1,035 1,609 3,962 31,941 234,024 | 444,793

The district and village schools are under the immediate | table elements were indistinguishably combined. Out of superintendence of the head master of the central school this chaos certain primary contraries, as he conceived them. in each island, and there is an inspector-general of all these cold and warm, earth and heaven, were first evolved, and in schools. The whole of the establishment for education is the course of certain separations and combinations alterunder the general direction of the commission for public in-nately proceeding, more perfect forms are spontaneously struction.

The only coinage of the states is a copper currency of farthings to the amount of 10,0002. The general circulating medium consists of Spanish dollars. Some British silver coin has also been put into circulation, but the greater part has been withdrawn for remittances to Malta and to England.

The Troy pound of 5760 grains is the standard weight: 24 of these grains make 1 calco; 20 calchi 1 ounce; and 12 ounces 1 libbra sottile, or pound light weight, equal to 1 lb. Troy. The libbra grossa, or great pound, contains 7000 grains, and is therefore equivalent to the pound avoirdupois; 100 lbs. (libbra grossa) are called a talento. The English imperial standard yard is the standard linear meawith the divisions into 3 feet and 36 inches: 5 yards are 1 camaco; 220 yards 1 stadio; and 1760 yards 1 mile. The imperial gallon is the measure of capacity: 1 gallon is equal to 8 dicotoli. An Ionian barrel contains 16 gallons, or 128 dicotoli.

sure,

developed, to be ultimately resolved into the homogeneous primary. After a long interval of a century Anaxagoras revived the mechanical physiology, and distinctly advanced the principle on which it rests, that nothing is changeable, but that the nature of every thing is permanent. Seizing the contrariety of the moving and the moved, which the mechanical theory is so well calculated to exhibit, he defined the latter to be extended antitypous bulk, inert body, infinitely multiple both in qualities and parts. The moving principle, on the contrary, is perfect, simple, and homogeneous-soul or spirit, which, as moving the elements into combinations of order and beauty, is endued with the faculty of knowing and surveying whatever was, and is, and shall be. Archelaus rather abandoned than advanced the views of his master Anaxagoras, and in him, as the teacher of Socrates, the Ionian school became extinct before the more extensive development of the Socratic philosophy. (Ritter, Geschichte d. Ionischen Philosophie; and Brandes, Geschichte d. Griech.-Röm. Philos.)

IONIAN SEA. [IONIA.]

IONIC DIALECT, the softest of the four written varieties of the Greek language, was spoken in the Ionian colonies of Asia Minor, and in several of the islands of the gean Sea. As the new Ionic, it is distinguished from an older, which was the common origin of itself and the Attic. The old Ionic was widely diffused, and its use was co-extensive with the Ionian settlements in the Peloponnesus and Northern Greece. (Thirlwall, History of Greece, i., 123.) The language of epic poetry arose out of this original tongue, which after the Dorian conquest passed, on the one hand, with the fugitives into Asia Minor, while, on the other, it continued to be spoken, for awhile at least, by the conquered peasantry who remained in Greece Proper. This tradition, which however, like most of the earlier traditions of Greece, is involved in great obscurity, may perhaps serve to explain (what in the common legends of Homer is otherwise inexplicable) the similarity of the language employed by Homer and Hesiod, who, though near to each other in time, were widely separated in the supposed scenes of their poetical labours. (Ibid., ii. 120.) This first matured form of the Ionic has been called the epic, and was faithfully adhered to as the standard of Greek epic and elegiac composition by all subsequent writers of epos or elegy, which also owed its birth to Ionians.

IONIAN SCHOOL comprises several of the earliest philosophers of Greece, whose speculations were predominantly of a physiological character, and who, with one or two exceptions, were natives of the Ionian colonies in Asia Minor. From this purely external circumstance the school has derived its name, and its members have been brought into an unbroken connexion of masters and disciples by the learned labours of the later Greeks, who strove to give to the first development of philosophy the same orderly transmission of doctrine which prevailed in the later schools. Accordingly Anaximander is made the scholar of Thales and the teacher of Anaximenes, who had two disciples, Diogenes of Apollonia in Crete, and Anaxagoras, whose disciple was Archelaus of Athens, or Miletus, in whom the school closes. Now, not to mention that this purely artificial arrangement omits Heraclitus, the chief of the Ionians, it is also open to great difficulties both of doctrine and chronology. As regards the latter however, we shall only advert to the general difficulty, that between six and seven generations (212 years) are occupied by the lives of Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Anaxagoras. The incongruity of the received arrangements appears at once on the slightest consideration of the doctrinal systems of the philosophers of this school. Agreeing in the hypothesis of a primeval state of things, they differed widely in the mode in which they accounted for the deduction of existing phe- On the formation of the new Ionic, or simply the Ionic, nomena out of the primal substance. One theory endued great influence was exercised by the commerce of the Ionians, the universe with life, and considered the orderly procession and especially by their intercourse with the soft and effemiof all things to be a spontaneous development of a pre-nate Asiatics. Neglecting the combination of strength with existent germ of life. A second accounted for all apparent softness which gave to the epic dialect its characteristic alteration in the form and qualities of natural bodies by fulness of tone, the Ionians attended only to mellowness certain changes in the outward relations of space, and pro- and euphony, to attain which it softened the aspirates, acceeded on the supposition of certain permanent material cumulated vowels, and laid aside every broader and harsher elements which change place in obedience to motion, either sound. Herodotus (i. 142) distinguishes four varieties originally inherent in or extrinsically impressed on the (xapakтйpes yλwoons) of the new Ionic, in one of which he mass. The latter is the mechanical, the former the dyna-wrote, and, though a Dorian, has left us the best and most mical theory of nature. Of the dynamical theorists, Thales complete specimen of it. [HERODOTUS; HIPPOCRATES.] first of all taught that all things are pregnant with life; IONIC ORDER. [CIVIL ARCHITECTURE; COLUMN.] that the seed or germ of vitality, which is in all things, IONI'DIUM, a genus of violaceous plants, inhabiting is water, because all seed is moist and humid. Of this the tropical parts of America. It resembles Viola itself in potentially living entity Anaximenes advanced a still most respects, but its sepals are not prolonged at the base worthier representation, and taught that the primal sub-into appendages, and the lower petal is not spurred. Several stance is infinite and sensuously imperceptible. This principle is analogous to the animal soul, and as the animal soul governs the body, so the universal soul rules and IÖRA, or JORA, a genus of birds established by Dr. embraces all things. Diogenes made a still farther advance, Horsfield, and placed by Mr. Swainson among his Brachyand maintained that the harmony and design of the mun-podine, or short-legged thrushes. [MERULIDE.] dane fabric suggest the unity and intelligence of its first principle. This principle however he considered as simply physical, and only distinguished from natural phenomena in this, that while it is infinite, as the principle of all, they are finite. Still bolder was the flight of Heraclitus, who taught that the world is an everliving being, a rational fire, whose vitality involves a tendency to contraries, and is ever passing from want to satiety.

The mechanical theory is first opened by Anaximander, who flourished not long after Thales, who conceived the ground both of production and motion to be an eternal substance, which he called the infinite, and wherein the immu

species are used medicinally. I. Ipecacuanha and some others have emetic roots.

IOS. [ARCHIPELAGO, GRECIAN.]

IPECACUANHA is an emetic substance, the root of several plants growing in South America. All the kinds have nearly the same ingredients, but differ in the amount of the active principle which they respectively contain, termed emeta. The best is the annulated, yielded by the Cephaëlis Ipecacuanha, a small shrubby plant, native of Brazil and of New Granada. Of this sort there are three varieties, namely, the brown, red, and grey, or grey-white, called also greater annulated ipecacuan. As this is the only sort sent from Rio Janeiro, it is sometimes called Brazilian or Lisbon ipecacuan. It is sent in bales and barrels