offer made me again to be a cardinal: I was then from court, | safe at land.' How effectively this money was applied to its but so soon as I came thither (which was by Wednesday, ostensible object, the defence of the coasts and the putting August 21), I acquainted his majesty with it. But my down of piracy, may be gathered from the following passage answer again was, that something dwelt within me which in a letter to Wentworth during the following year:-"The would not suffer that till Rome was other than it is.' mischief which the most Christian Turks did about Plymouth is most true, and I pray God it do no mischief about our shipping business this ensuing year.'

Laud made a declaration that in the disposition of ecclesiastical benefices he would give a preference to the single man over the married, ceteris paribus. The close union between the English church and the aristocracy appears to have commenced about this time. Under Laud,' remarks Heylyn, in his quaint phrase, the clergy were grown to such esteem for parts and power, that the gentry thought none of their daughters to be better disposed than such as they had lodged in the arms of a churchman; and the nobility grown so well affected to the state of the church, that some of them designed their younger sons to the order of priesthood, to make them capable of rising in the ascendant.'

Laud's letters to Wentworth, afterwards earl of Strafford, exhibit a more faithful mirror of the man's character than is anywhere else to be met with. His Diary, though it bears sufficient impress of his peculiar spirit, discloses his character but imperfectly, particularly as there are many apparently important facts only hinted at, and names of which only the initials are given. The history of his troubles and trial, by himself, and the voluminous life by Heylyn, were expressly written to vindicate his conduct and character. In perusing the letters between Laud and Wentworth the reader feels as if allowed to be present at a confidential conversation between those personages. The letters of Strafford, along with many indications of a violent, arbitrary, overbearing temper, exhibit evidence of strength and sagacity, and sometimes even of greatness of mind. Of the lastmentioned quality the reader will in vain search for any trace in the letters of the prelate. In courage and violence he did not yield to Strafford; but narrowness and littleness appear to have been the distinguishing characteristic of Laud's mind, and yet, contracted though his intellectual range was, some parts of his Conference with Fisher the Jesuit,' besides great scholastic learning, display considerable acuteness and no mean powers of reasoning.

On the 5th of February, 1634, Laud was appointed one of the great Committee of Trade and the King's Revenue; and on the death of Weston, lord high treasurer, the management of the treasury was committed by letters patent under the great seal to certain commissioners, of whom Laud was one. In the year following Laud and the Church of England attained a very high, perhaps it may be said the highest point of their prosperity. Laud thus records the event in his 'Diary: March 6, Sunday, William Juxon, lord bishop of London, made lord high treasurer of England: no churchman had it since Henry VII.'s time. I pray God bless him to carry it so, that the church may have honour, and the king and the state service and contentment by it; and now if the church will not hold themselves up under God, I can do no more.'

The following passage from a letter of the Rev. G. Garrard, master of the Charterhouse, a correspondent of Strafford's, presents a lively picture of the state of feeling then prevalent among the clergy. It shows how near having an altogether ecclesiastical government England then was:The clergy are so high here since the joining of the white sleeves with the white staff, that there is much talk of having a secretary a bishop, Dr. Wren, bishop of Norwich, and a chancellor of the exchequer, Dr. Bancroft, bishop of Oxford, but this comes only from the young fry of the clergy; little credit is given to it, but it is observed they swarm mightily about the court.'

In a letter of 6th July, 1635, Laud thus speaks of the raising of ship-money: As the last year there was money raised upon the ports, according to antient precedent, for the setting out of the navy, which is now at sea, and there God bless it, so we are now going to prepare for a greater navy against the next year; and because the charge will be too heavy to lay it upon the ports, or maritime counties only, therefore his majesty hath thought fit, a paritate rationis, and for the like defence of the kingdom, to extend it to all counties and corporations within England and Wales, that so the navy may be full, and yet the charge less, as coming from so many hands. I pray God bless this business, for if it go well, the king will be a great master at sea, and in these active times we, by God's blessing, may be the more

On the 14th June, 1637, sentence was passed in the Star Chamber against Bastwick, Burton, and Prynne, for libels, as Laud informs us in his 'Diary,'' against the hierarchy of the church. The archbishop does not however give any definition of what he meant by a libel against the hierarchy of the church. Prynne's sentence was, to be fined 5000l. to the king, to lose the remainder of his ears in the pillory, to be branded on both cheeks with the letters S. L. for Schismatical Libeller, and to be perpetually imprisoned. The sentence of Bastwick and Burton was nearly similar. Most people thought these men's punishment sufficiently severe: not so the primate, as will appear from the following passage of a letter to Wentworth, of August 28th, 1637

'I have received the copy of the sentence against Paterson, and am verily of your lordship's mind, that a little more quickness in the government would cure this itch of libelling, and something that is amiss besides.'

But the termination of Laud's career was now approaching. On the 18th of November, a few weeks after the meeting of the Long Parliament, he was impeached of high treason by the House of Commons, and committed to the Tower. It is impossible here to enter into the details of the archbishop's trial, of which he has himself written a full, and, on the whole, faithful account. (History of his Troubles and Trial, folio, London, 1695.) He defended himself throughout with courage and ability. The judges gave it to be understood that the charges contained no legal treason; whereupon the Commons changed the impeachment into an ordinance for his execution, to which the Lords assented. Laud produced a pardon from the king, which was disregarded. On this proceeding we quote the following remark from a modern publication:-Laud's cruelty and bigotry and insolence in the execution of his high office ought assuredly not to have gone unpunished; but the sentence against him was perhaps the most unjustifiable act of the zealots of the Long Parliament, and was not less illegal than that which afterwards condemned Vane to the block; and in this appears strongly one of the disadvantages of government by a large assembly of men. The odium of Vane's death fell altogether upon Charles and Clarendon, and is of power sufficient, being thus concentrated, to brand their memory to all time. The odium of the death of Laud, being divided among so many, has neither brought with it individual infamy nor was likely to produce individual remorse.' (Westminster Review, vol. xvii., p. 508.)

It would be unjust to Laud not to mention his benefactions to learning. Besides making valuable donations of books and MSS. to the university of Oxford, he founded in that university a professorship of Arabic in 1636, and endowed it with lands in the parish of Bray, in the county of Berks. His conduct to John Hales, known by the appel lation of the ever-memorable,' is also recorded to his honour. Hales had written a short tract on schism, which was much at variance with Laud's views of church govern ment: this tract had been circulated in MS. Hales, in an interview with Laud, refused to recede from his free notions of ecclesiastical power, but promised that he would not publish the tract. Laud conferred on him a canonry of Windsor.

Laud was beheaded on the 10th of January, 1640-1. (Laud's Diary; Heylyn's Life of Laud; Strafford's Letters and Despatches.)

LAUDANUM. [OPIUM.]

LAUENBURG, or SAXE-LAUENBURG, a duchy in Germany subject to the king of Denmark, is situated on the right bank of the Elbe, between 53° 22′ and 53° 47′ N. lat., and 10° 3' and 11° 5' E. long. It is bounded by the territories of Hanover, Mecklenburg, Holstein, Lübeck, and Hamburg, and has an area of 420 square miles, with a po pulation of 37,500 inhabitants professing the Lutheran religion. The face of the country is level, with only a few hilis: the soil is in some parts very fertile, while in others there are tracts of sand or extensive heaths; there are also large turf-moors and considerable forests, of which the largest is

that called the Sachsenwald. The rivers are the Elbe, Bille, Stecknitz, and Trave, which afford ample means for inland trade; and the Stecknitz Canal, between the Elbe and the Trave, opens a communication with the Baltic at Lübeck. The most considerable lakes are those of Schaal and Ratzeburg. Its natural productions are corn, flax, timber, turf, horned cattle, sheep, poultry, fish, &c., more than sufficient for home consumption. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture and the carrying trade both by land and water; and their exports are pretty considerable, especially of timber and fuel. They have no manufactures.

·

Beattie and Priestley agree in making the ridiculous to arise out of a misrelation or incongruous union of objects; while Lord Kames considers a contrast to be the essence of the laughable. The latter view is adopted by Mendelsohn and J. Paul Richter. The former (Dialogue iii., Klein phil. und æsth, Schriften) makes it to be grounded on a contrast between perfection and imperfection, which however must be unimportant and but slightly interesting to us, and must amount to no more than an extravagance or inconsistency. The latter (in his Vorschule d. Esthetik,' p. 143) makes the ridiculous to be the contrary of the sublime, and consequently the infinitely small. Closely coincident with this Lauenburg had formerly its own dukes, whose family view is that of Campbell (Philosophy of Rhetoric,' bk. i., became extinct in 1689, on the death of Duke Julian ch. ii.), who observes that ridicule in futile objects hath a Francis. It was then taken possession of by George William similar effect to that produced by what is called the veheduke of Brunswick Lüneburg as a portion of the dominions ment in solemn and important matters.' Lastly, Kant of Henry the Lion, conformably to a convention concluded (Kritik d. Urtheilskraft, p. 225, 2nd ed.) makes the ridicuin 1639 between the dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Lau-lous to arise from the sudden conversion into nothing of a enburg, and being incorporated with Brunswick-Lüneburg, long-raised and highly-wrought expectation. subsequently formed part of the electorate of Hanover. In 1805 it was taken possession of by the Emperor Napoleon, and in 1810 incorporated with the new French department | of the Mouths of the Elbe. In 1814 Lauenburg was restored to its former sovereign George III. as king of Hanover; but by the rather complex arrangements subsequent to the peace of 1815, Sweden, which had deprived Denmark of the kingdom of Norway, ceded Swedish Pomerania to Denmark, and Prussia ceded East Friesland to Hanover, in exchange for the duchy of Lauenburg, Hanover however retaining the small tract on the left bank of the Elbe and the detached bailiwick of Neuhaus on the right bank (making together 105 square miles, with 10,000 inhabitants). Prussia then exchanged Lauenburg with Denmark for Swedish Pomerania; but as the latter province was more valuable, Prussia paid to Denmark two millions of Prussian dollars. It also paid a debt of 600,000 Swedish bank dollars, which Sweden owed to Denmark, and paid besides 3,500,000 dollars to Sweden.

The chief towns are Lauenburg (3500 inhabitants) on the Elbe, at the mouth of the Delvenau or Stecknitz Canal, by which goods are conveyed from the Elbe to Lübeck; Ratzeburg, the capital, a well-built town on an island in the Ratzeburg Lake, has extremely fine views over that great lake: it is connected with the left bank by a causeway, and with the right by a bridge 1100 feet in length (population 2500 inh.); Möllen on the Stecknitz, the burying-place of the famous Till Eulenspiegel, of whom various relics are still shown there.

Ac

LAUGHARNE. [CAERMARTHENSHIRE.] LAUGHTER, as physically defined, is a peculiar agitation of the body, as it were, an organical titillation, which rising suddenly and irresistably, affects at once the face and throat, the thorax and the abdomen. Although this physical phenomenon is usually more or less loud, it is sometimes almost imperceptible, and only traceable by a slight muscular motion of the face and mouth. While however the corporeal phenomenon is so simple, the nature of the mental state, and of the object by which it is produced, is more complicated and debateable. On this subject a great variety of opinions has prevailed. Among the antients there is more of unanimity than among the moderns. cording to Aristotle, the ridiculous is some error in truth or propriety, but at the same time neither painful nor pernicious (τὸ γάρ γελοῖον ἐστὶν ἁμάρτημά τι καὶ αἴσχος ἀνώδυνον Kai ou paprikov. De Poet., 6, § 1). Nearly coincident with the foregoing is the view of Cicero, who while he declares that the ridiculous is incapable of any rigorous definition, admits that the chief, if not the sole object of laughter, is that which, without impropriety, marks out and exposes an impropriety (Hæc enim ridentur vel sola vel maximè quæ notant et designant turpitudinem quandam non turpiter?' De Oratore, 2, n. 235). Quintilian considers it to be absolutely indefinable (Anceps ejus rei ratio est,' lib. vi., c. 3). At the same time, by adducing the opinion of Cicero, that the improper and the deformed constitute the province of ridicule, and affirming that ridicule is near allied to contempt (a derisu non procul abest risus:' Ibid.), he approximates to the strong opinion of Hobbes among moderns, according to whom, the source of laughter is 'a sudden glory arising from conception of some eminency in ourselves, by comparison with the infirmity of others, or with our own formerly' (Human Nature, ch. ix., s. 13). With Hobbes's opinion, that of Helvetius coincides, who makes pride the source of laughter. P. C., No. 832.

According to Shaftesbury (Characteristics;' 'Essay on Wit and Humour') ridicule is the test of truth, and he adduces in support of his view the words of Gorgias of Leontini, Confute ridicule by seriousness and seriousness by ridicule' (rijv μèv oñovôηv diap0eíρeiv yêλwti, tòv đề yếλwτα rovdy. Arist., Rhet., lib. 3, ch. xviii.). In order to adjust the sentence to his own view, Shaftesbury adopts the Latin version, 'seria risu, risum seriis discutere; it is however clear from the context where the passage is quoted, that Gorgias was there recommending an orator to endeavour to remove the impression, which his opponent may have made upon his auditors, by employing a directly opposite style of address. But the maxim of Shaftesbury admits only of a negative application, for ridicule, at most, is only fitted to refute error. In truth however it is not properly levelled at the false, but at the absurd in tenets and opinions. The ridiculous is not any fixed and constant property of certain objects, but it is purely relative and dependent upon the subjective states and conditions of individual minds. The simpleton and the boor laugh heartily at what scarcely provokes a smile in the educated man and the sage; and on the other hand, much will excite a laugh in the latter, which would not move a muscle in the face of the former. Such again is the effect of a gay or a gloomy temperament, that a Democritus will laugh where a Heraclitus would weep.

LAUMONITE occurs crystallized and massive. Primary form an oblique rhombic prism. Cleaves parallel to all the faces of the primary form and to the diagonal planes. Fracture uneven. Hardness, scratched by carbonate of lime. Colour white, sometimes yellowish and reddish. Streak white. Lustre vitreous and pearly. Translucent, opaque. Specific gravity 2.3. The crystals fall to powder by exposure to the air, on account of the loss of water.

up

Massive Varieties amorphous, structure granular. Gelatinizes in nitric acid. Before the blowpipe swells before fusion, and gives a white enamel, which, by a continued heat, is converted into a transparent glass. It is found in Scotland, Ireland, France, Hungary, and Iceland. Analysis by Gmelin

Silica

Alumina

Lime
Water

48.30

22.70

12.10

16.

99 10

LAUNCESTON (also called Dunheved), a corporate town in the county of Cornwall, of which it is usually regarded as the capital. It is pleasantly situated on a steep hill rising from the banks of the Attery, a few miles above the confluence of that stream with the Tamar, and 210 miles west-south-west from London. The houses are in general mean and irregularly built, and the streets narrow and inconvenient. Within the last few years the town has been greatly improved, and is now lighted with gas, the expense of which is defrayed by a rate.

Both the assizes for the county of Cornwall were formerly held at Launceston (by virtue of a charter from Richard, king of the Romans), but by the stat. 1 Geo. I., c. 45, the summer assizes were removed to Bodmin, and in consequence of the completion of new courts at the latter place in 1838, and the situation of the county gaol there, both assizes are

now held at Bodmin.

The corporate revenue, arising principally from tolls,
VOL. XIII-2 Z

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mon is of superior quality, at least some of it, and is pre- | northern shore of the Leman lake, on three steep hills, ferred by the Chinese to that of Ceylon, and said to be pro- divided by deep ravines, and which are projections of the duced in Cochin China chiefly in the dry sandy districts ridge of Jorat, on the central high land of the Canton de lying north-west of the town of Faifoe, between 15° and 16° Vaud. The highest of these ridges, upon which the old N. lat. Mr. Crawfurd (Embassy to Siam, p. 478) informs cathedral is built, is 500 feet above the lake, and about us that there are ten varieties of it, and that it is not cured, 1700 above the sea. The situation of Lausanne is pictulike that of Ceylon, by freeing it from the epidermis. Dr. resque, but the interior of the town is far from pleasing; the A. T. Thomson gives this as one of the characters by which streets are mostly narrow, very steep, and ill paved. The cassia may be distinguished from cinnamon. It is possible cathedral, a vast Gothic structure of the eleventh century, therefore that some of it may be imported into Europe, and is the handsomest in Switzerland, is adorned with a lofty sold as cassia, though Mr. Marshall states that the cassia tower, and also a spire 200 feet high. The church of St. bark of the shops is only a coarse cinnamon obtained from Francis is also a very old building, and is memorable for the the thick roots or large branches of the cinnamon-tree. council assembled there in 1449, in which Felix V. solemnly Cassia buds, or Flores Lauri Cassiæ, are the dried recep- resigned the papacy in order to restore peace to the Western tacles of some species of this family, by some supposed to be church. [AMADEUS VIII.] The castle, formerly the resithe above C. aromaticum, but it has been pointed out by dence of the Bernese bailiffs or governors, is now the Loureiro, and is named C. Loureirii by Nees. It is a government-house, and the legislative council of the canton native of Cochin China towards Laos, and of Japan. assembles in one of its halls. The other remarkable buildings of Lausanne are-1, the college, or academy, which contains the various classes of belles-lettres, theology, and law, the normal school, or school for teachers, the cantonal library, with 33,000 volumes, the library for the students, and a museum containing collections of mineralogy, botany, zoology, &c.; 2, the penitentiary, established in 1822, which is considered a model of its kind; 3, the new building of the charity-schools, which are possessed of a capital of about 10,000l. sterling; 4, the casino, or clubhouse; 5, the old episcopal palace near the cathedral, which now contains the hospital, the prisons, and the elementary schools.

It has sometimes been doubted whether the substances we now call cinnamon and cassia are exactly the same things as those to which the antients applied these names. It is very certain that the substances which formed such highly esteemed articles of commerce must have possessed some remarkable physical and sensible properties not common in products beyond the tropics. The aromatic principle is that which is most conspicuous in the products of the tropical zone, and is found probably in most of the substances which the antients obtained from the East, at least Dioscorides has described them all together. It would be difficult even with our present knowledge to find any other substances which would equally well answer the antient descriptions, without going still farther east. The Greek name of cinnamon is kiváμwμov, which Herodotus says his countrymen learnt from the Phoenicians, and the Hebrew, we know, is kinnemon. It is remarkable that the Malay name is kayu-manis, which Mr. Marshall says is sometimes pronounced as if written kaina-manis. By the Hindus cinnamon is called dur-cheenee, indicating that they obtained it from the Chinese; and Professor Wilson has lately proved that there was commerce by sea with China at a very early period, and, what is still more remarkable, that the navigators were Hindus.

The Culilawan bark, often written Culibaban, or Culitlawan, said to be derived from kulit, bark, and lawan, clove, in some measure resembles Ca-sia. It is one of those which has been known in Europe since the seventeenth century, but has been little used in modern times, though Blume describes it as possessed of remarkable properties in curing diseases. Analyzed by M. Schloss, it was found to yield a resin, a volatile oil, and a bitter extractive substance. A volatile oil obtained from it in Amboyna is used as a stimulant, according to Labillardiere. It was formerly employed in Europe as an aromatic stimulant, and must be useful in cases where such remedies are indicated. The tree yielding it is a native of Amboyna, and is called Cinnamomum Culilawan by Blume.

The Laurel, or Sweet Bay, now alone remains in the genus Laurus, and is the L. nobilis of Linnæus, a native of the north of Africa and south of Europe, and of Asia; at least it has been so long naturalized in these countries that it would be difficult to ascertain whence it was originally introduced. It is the dapun of the Greeks, and is known to the Arabs by the name ghar, with zafne as its Greek synonyme. The berries are even found in Indian bazaars by the name hubal-ghar.

The Bay-tree attains a height of 20 or 30 feet, and is cultivated in gardens, not only on account of its elegant appearance, but also for the aromatic fragrance of its leaves, which are evergreen, lanceolate, wavy at the margin, and quite smooth. The flowers are small, four or five clustered together in the axils of the leaves, of a yellowish-white colour, and dotted. The fruit is small, ovate, dark purple | coloured, and a little succulent. It is endowed with aromatic properties as well as the leaves, whence both have long been used in medicine as stimulants and carminatives, as well as a fatty oil expressed from the seed, which however, retaining a portion of the volatile oil, has a fragrant smell. The term bachelor has by some been supposed to be derived from the former practice of crowning candidates for honours with bay-leaves and berries, whence the terms baccalaureus and laureate.

LAUSANNE, the head town of the Canton de Vaud, in Switzerland, is situated about a mile and a half from the

At the census of 1835 Lausanne contained 12,030 inhabitants, exclusive of the numerous visitors of all nations who constantly resort to it. The bulk of the inhabitants are of the Swiss Protestant church, and the town is divided into four parishes. There is a Catholic congregation, who built for themselves a church in 1835. The Lutherans have a chapel, which is also used by the English, who are always in considerable numbers here, and for whom there is a clergyman of the Church of England generally residing at Lausanne.

The Canton de Vaud is essentially agricultural, and Lausanne has no extensive or important manufactures. There are above 500 rentiers, or persons who are possessed of independent income, about 200 shopkeepers, 400 journeymen labourers or mechanics, 1300 servants, 150 individuals employed under government, 98 inns and public-houses, and about 30 factories of various kinds, tanners, spinners, paper-makers, printers, lithographers, &c. Some trade is carried on in wine, which is the staple produce of the country. (Leresche, Dictionnaire Geographique de la Suisse.)

The environs of Lausanne are delightful, on account of the variety of sites, the richness of the vegetation, the numerous fine country-houses with which the neighbourhood is studded, and the splendid scenery embracing the whole basin of the lake, the Alps of Savoy, those of the Valais, and the chain of the Jura. Society at Lausanne is also very pleasant, and easily accessible to strangers. A rapid descent of little more than a mile leads from Lausanne to the village of Ouchy, on the shore of the lake, where the steam-boats from Geneva and Villeneuve daily put in. The house and garden in which Gibbon wrote the greatest part of the 'Decline and Fall' are still shown at Lausanne. Gibbon's library, of more than 2000 volumes, many with marginal notes in his own hand, which had remained at Lausanne ever since his death, was sold a few years since, when most of the books were purchased by Englishmen. [VAUD, CANTON OF]

LAUSITZ, or LUSATIA, UPPER and LOWER, formed, before the partition of which we shall presently speak, a margraviate, and extended from 50° 50′ to 52° 16' N. lat., and from 13° 20′ to 15° 15′ E. long. It was bounded on the north by Brandenburg, on the east by Silesia, on the south by Bohemia, and on the west by Saxony. The area was 4336 square miles, and the population about half a million of inhabitants. Upper Lausitz is the larger portion of the margraviate, its area being 2289 square miles. The surface is in general a sandy plain. Along the southern frontier runs a mountain-chain called the Wolische Kamm, which is connected on the east with the Riesengebirge, and on the west with the Erzgebirge. The ridge of this chain, which properly belongs to Bohemia, is the greatest elevation of Upper Lausitz. The rock is granite

The fourth column gives, for comparison, the result of Dr. Kennedy's examination of the compact lava from Catania. Soda, an ingredient of compact felspar, appears more frequent in lavas than potash, which belongs to common felspar; magnesia is not common, its place in the chemical aggregate being probably occupied by oxide of iron. [AUGITE.]

Trachyte is conjectured by Dr. Daubeny to be derived from granite; and some volcanic products present in their chemical composition a remarkable analogy to that of granite. Obsidian, of which a specimen from Heola yielded to Vauquelin