unconsciously, and always perfectly. This difference may be clearly exemplified by a comparison between the volitional, and the instinctive, movements of the face. The former, commonly called grimaces, are executed in the same way as any other intentional bodily movements; the power of executing them increases by practice, just as does the power of performing gymnastic feats; and, like all other movements, if very frequently repeated, they become habitual, and may take place unconsciously. But the instinctive movements, or expressions, require unconsciousness of their occurrence for their complete display; and are never so well seen as upon the countenance of a young child, where joy or sorrow, surprise, anger, or fear, produce each their special movements immediately that the passions themselves are felt. No practice can imitate expressions. They can only be produced, at will, by directing the thoughts upon the passion whose appearance it is desired to give; and by endeavouring so to feel, and realise it, that it shall produce its effect upon the face. Hence those actors are the most successful, who can most completely forget their own individuality, and identify themselves with the character they represent; when, in fact, they are no longer acting. It would be easy to multiply instances of the perfection of instinctive actions in young animals, and to compare them with the imperfection of such as are acquired; but the fact to be remembered is too obvious to demand more than a single illustration. It will be sufficient to quote Paley's celebrated definition: "Instinct is a propensity, prior to experience, and independent of instruc

tion:" and to observe that, in all its manifestations, we see a perfect contrivance applied to its destined purpose; while, in the exercise of volition, a finite and imperfect being is called upon to compass his ends by the best means that his power can supply, or his ingenuity suggest. Hence the actions prompted by instinct always bring about an uniform result, as in the cell of the bee, or the nest of the bird; while the actions of human volition are infinitely various, and depend for their character upon the individual who produces them. Lastly, it has been said, that the actions prompted by instinctive force are sometimes perfectly uncontrollable; and often essential to life or safety while those proceeding from volition never possess the former character, and seldom the latter. This is but to say that the life and safety of the human animal are placed under the guardianship of natural impulses, by which, in time of need, the resources of his own judgment are liable to be superseded for his good. The illustrative phenomena have often been alluded to in former pages; and this part of the subject will not require any farther elucidation.

The doctrines of force, in relation to the nervous system, may be summed up in the following propositions:

1. The various modes of physical force,--as heat, light, and electricity,-when acting upon, or passing through, material substances, are liable, under certain conditions, to be transformed into each other. When acting upon, or passing through, living structures, they are liable to be transformed into a new mode, denominated vital force.

2. The life of the body is dependent, first, upon a supply of force from certain external sources (of which the solar heat and light, the atmospheric electricity, and the chemical affinity of substances used as food, are the chief); and secondly, upon its own inherent property of transforming this supply into vital force.

3. This inherent property is possessed by every individual cell, in a degree sufficient to maintain its own existence; and, in a greater degree, by the cells of the nervous system, whose office it is to supply other parts of the body, from time to time, with one of the conditions necessary to increased vital action.

4. The term "vital force" may be restricted to that which each cell transforms for itself; and requires, in order to maintain its own integrity, and to resist solution and decay.

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5. The term nervous force" may be used to denote that which is transformed by special cells, over and above their individual requirements, for use in other parts of the frame.

6. Nervous force is recognized under two forms,-the instinctive, and the volitional.

Instinctive force is not subject to the control of the animal, and provides for the proper performance of actions predetermined by Divine Providence.

Volitional force is peculiar to mankind, in whom, to a certain extent, it supersedes the instinctive. It is under the control of the individual in whose nervous system it is developed; and it provides for the performance of actions for which that individual is alone responsible.

CHAPTER III.

THE NATURE AND EFFECTS OF EMOTION.

If a person of liberal education were asked to define the meaning of the word "emotion," he would, probably, reply, that it includes a great number of different mental states, associated together by the existence of strong feeling, as an element common to them all. Beyond the limits of this explanation, he would scarcely be prepared to answer; and, if pressed with regard to the nature of strong feeling, or called upon for a more minute analysis of the emotional state, it would be found, in the generality of cases, that his ideas on the subject were very far removed from clearness or exactitude. Notwithstanding this, he would readily arrange the emotions in two great classes, as the exciting, and the depressing, respectively; and he would assign to some of them an acutely painful, and to others, a highly pleasurable, character. He would, moreover, recognize, as the consequences of emotions, many important changes in the physical and mental condition of all persons submitted to their sway; and would have a practical belief (finding expression in action, if not in words,)

that they are competent to diminish for a time the volitional power of those displaying them; and hence, to diminish also their moral and social responsibilities; furnishing them with an excuse, more or less valid, for hasty words uttered, or intemperate actions done.

And if regard be paid to the phraseology which is daily on our lips, on all matters connected with excited feeling, it alone will show that the belief referred to is both deeply rooted and widely spread, so as to have left its traces on the very framework of our language. We say, "impelled by emotion," "struggling with emotion," "overpowered by emotion ;" and, in using these words, we express our own conviction, and record the conviction of our forefathers, to the effect that emotion is a force, a something which the human will cannot resist without an effort; and against which that effort may frequently be unsuccessful.

Pursuing the inquiry still farther, and advancing beyond the vague ideas which are embodied in our forms of speech, we obtain more precise information from the writings of Dr. Carpenter, by whom the subject before us has been most carefully studied in all its bearings. He teaches that, "just as the simple feelings of pleasure or pain are associated with particular sensations, the same feelings connect themselves with particular ideas; and thus are produced those emotional states of mind which, directly or indirectly, determine a great part of our habits of thought, and are largely concerned in the government of our conduct. The formation of a true desire, even for the gratification of some bodily appetite, requires that an idea of the object of desire shall have been