a thing that is past; that which indicates and demonstrates another thing which is present; that which foretells another thing which is future. This view is expressed by the Apostle when he says, all of us who were baptized in Christ were baptized in his death,1 showing that Baptism is a sign of the Lord's passion; and again when he says, we were buried with him through Baptism into death, that as Christ rose from the dead through the glory of the Father, so also we should walk in newness of life,2 it is evident that Baptism is a sign of the celestial grace infused into us, whereby we may fulfil easily and willingly all the duties of true piety; and finally, when he says, if we were planted with him in the likeness of his death, we shall be also in that of the resurrection,3 it is apparent that Baptism gives no obscure intimation of the eternal life which we shall obtain through him. We must add that often a sacrament signifies not only one present thing, but more, as the Eucharist, for instance, signifies not only the grace which is given to the recipients but the presence of the true body and blood of the Lord.

There are several reasons why sacraments were instituted. The first is the weakness of human nature, which forbids anyone to aspire to a knowledge of those things which are comprehended by the mind and understanding, except through things which are perceived by one of the senses. A second cause is that our mind is not easily moved to believe those things which are promised to us. As the Lord confirmed his word to Moses by a variety of signs, so Christ our Saviour, when he promised the pardon of our sins, heavenly grace, and the communication of the Holy Spirit, instituted certain signs appealing to our eyes and senses, whereby we might hold him bound as by pledges, and should never be able to doubt that he would be faithful in his promises. The third cause was that they should be at hand as remedies for recovering or maintaining the health of our souls.

For

the virtue which flows from the passion of Christ, that is, the grace which he earned for us on the altar of the cross, ought to be diffused in us through the sacraments, as through a channel; otherwise no hope of salvation could be left to anyone. A fourth cause rendered the institution necessary, namely, that there should be certain marks whereby the faithful should be known, and should be at once distinguished from unbelievers and united among themselves by a sacred bond of visible signs. Fifthly, by the sacraments we profess our faith in the sight of men. Hence they not only have great efficacy in exciting faith in our own minds, but also in inflaming that love which we ought to have among ourselves when we recollect that by the communion of the sacred mysteries we are bound to one another in the closest ties, and made members of one body. Finally, they subdue the pride of the human mind, while, in obedience to God, we are compelled to subject ourselves to the elements of sensible things.

Every sacrament consists of two parts, the matter and the form. The matter, which appeals to the eyes, as the water in Baptism, is technically called 'the element.' The form is imparted by 'the word,' which is apprehended by the ears. This is indicated by the Apostle when he says 'Christ loved the Church, and delivered himself up for it, that he might sanctify it, cleansing it with a bath of water in the word of life.'1 The words are to be added to the matter in order that the signification of what is done. may be made clearer; for the element by itself might symbolize different things, as water might signify cooling as well as cleansing. Hence there is a prescribed form of words, which are necessary for the validity of the sacrament. To these necessary parts are added ceremonies, which cannot indeed be omitted without sin, unless necessity compel; but, nevertheless, if they are omitted, the efficacy of the sacrament is unimpaired. They conduce to a reverent 1 Eph. v. 25, 26. The vitae of the Vulgate is not represented in the Greek.

administration, and lift to higher thoughts the minds of those who are present, and awaken in them faith and charity.

The Catholic Church recognizes seven sacraments, all instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord, namely, Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Orders, and Matrimony.1 These seven are not equal in necessity and dignity. There are three which are specially described as necessary: Baptism, for every one individually: Penance, for those only who after Baptism fall into mortal sin; Orders, for the Church as a whole. But in regard to dignity and sanctity the Eucharist far surpasses the rest.

The sacraments contain the grace which they signify, and confer it upon those who do not put an obstacle in the way, so that the grace is bestowed ex opere operato. Since the ministers appointed to celebrate the sacraments bear, in that sacred function, not their own, but Christ's person, it follows that whether they are good or bad, provided they use the form and matter instituted by Christ, and intend to do what the Church does in that administration, they truly complete the sacraments, and nothing in them prevents the fruit of grace, for it is God who gives the increase. This doctrine of intention is explained in a very broad way by Bellarmin.2 He says it is not necessary to intend what the Roman Church does, but what the true Church does, whichever that may be, or what Christ instituted, or what Christians do; for these come to the same thing. He who intends to do what the Church of Geneva does intends to do what the universal Church does, because he thinks it is a member of the true universal Church. The error of a minister about the Church does not remove the efficacy of

1 Conc. Trident. Can. et Decr., Sessio vii. Can. i. The number seven was finally fixed by the Council of Florence in 1439. The Greek Church recognizes the same seven μvoτýpia, except that Unction is applied to sick people who are not necessarily in extremis. See Mogilas, 'Opłódoέos Ὁμολογία, πρῶτον μέρος, ἀπόκ. 98, and Ὁμολογία Δοσιθέου, ὅρος 15. 2 Quoted by Winer, Comparative Darstellung.

a sacrament, but only the defect of intention can do so. And hence it is that in the Catholic Church those who have been baptized by Protestants of Geneva are not rebaptized. There is some difference of opinion, however, among Catholic theologians as to the precise meaning of intention; but it is generally held that the want of internal intention would not invalidate a sacrament provided the minister had the will seriously to perform the rite prescribed by the Church, and to do nothing which is calculated to show a contrary intention. On the other hand, the intention to perform the outward rite, but in mockery or in play, would confessedly not make the performance valid. Nevertheless, ministers are bound to remember that the sacraments never lose their Divine virtue, and that they bring eternal perdition to those who administer them impurely; for it is a grievous sin for one who is conscious of many sins to celebrate the sacred mysteries with a polluted mouth, or to take them into foul hands, and offer them to others.

Passing now to the effects of the sacraments, we must observe in the first place that the communication of justifying grace is common to them all. In what way this is effected cannot be understood by human intelligence; for nothing sensible is by its own nature endowed with the power of penetrating the mind. Therefore in early times the reality of this operation was confirmed by miracles. Not to mention the fact that heaven was opened and the Spirit descended at the Baptism of the Saviour, which refers rather to the signification of Baptism than to the administration of the sacrament, we read that, when on the day of Pentecost the Apostles received the Holy Spirit, there was suddenly a sound from heaven, and tongues as it were of fire appeared to them; whence it is understood that by the sacrament of Confirmation the same Spirit is given to us. When faith was fully established these miracles ceased. The sacraments work the grace which they signify by virtue 1 Addis and Arnold, Catholic Dictionary. p. 738.

of Christ's blood. There is a second effect which is not common to all. The indelible character which they impress on the soul is peculiar to three only, Baptism, Confirmation, and Orders. This character serves to render us fit for undertaking or transacting something sacred, and to distinguish one from another by some mark. These three sacraments, therefore, are never to be repeated.

I have taken this long account mainly from the Catechismus Romanus because I think it is an admirable exposition of the whole doctrine of sacraments. While the doctrine of the Greek Church does not differ substantially from that of the Roman, the Protestant bodies, though for the most part retaining a doctrine of sacraments, deviate from the Catholic position, and are by no means in agreement among themselves. Their definitions are not always perfectly clear; but, if we set aside the Society of Friends, who reject sacraments altogether, their main division turns upon the question whether the sacraments are real channels of a special grace, which is conferred in no other way, or are simply signs of God's grace and goodwill towards us. It will be sufficient to cite a few leading authorities. The earliest definitions are not very complete. According to the Augsburg Confession Sacraments are signs and testimonies of the will of God towards us, for exciting and confirming faith in those who use them'; and the Apology defines them as 'rites which have the command of God, and to which has been. added a promise of grace'; and it is by these two marks that they are distinguished from human ceremonies.2 Dorner, representing the modern Lutheran view, says 'the Sacraments are sacred actions, instituted by Christ and connected with the Word of God, in which, under outward signs, invisible grace is not merely preached, but dispensed to the individual receptive thereto by Christ Himself, to whom the Church is merely an organ. The benefit of this offered grace is personally appropriated by