The word Targum is of uncertain derivation, and is used for the Aramaic versions of the Old Testament. The first trace of such a vernacular (oral) rendering is in Heb. viii. 8, where the word Mephorash (A. V. "distinctly ") is in the Talmud (Megilla, 3, 1; Nedarim, 37, 2) explained to mean "with a Targum." In Sanhedrin, f. 212, we are told that Ezra introduced the Targum, and the square character of the Hebrew letters.

Jonathan Ben Uzziel,

Full accounts of them

The chief Targums are those of Onqelos, Pseudo-Jonathan and the Targum Jerushalmi. will be found in Deutsch's Remains, pp. 319-403. Wogue, Hist. de la Bible, pp. 145-157; and Weber, Alt.-Synag. Theologie, viii.-xix.

THE MIDRASH.

Jewish literature is, 1. Halakhic and Haggadic: the Mishna; the Talmuds.

2. Expository in a wider sense: the Midrashim and (incidentally) the Targums.

3. Massoretic, the great and little Massora.

1 Berakhoth, f. 64, 1; Horaioth, f. 14, 1.

2 R. Tarphon also called him "the horned ram," and applied Dan. viii. 3-7 to him, from his skill in rebutting the arguments of R. Aqiba. These and other titles are given in Gittin, f. 67, 1, and the Aboth of R. Nathan, xviii. I am indebted for these references to Mr. P. J. Hershon.

8 Aboth, ii. 10, " Happy is she that bare him." The title "Lux mundi" was given in the Middle Ages to John Wessel.

4. Historical, Chananiah, The Books of Maccabees, Josephus, Josippon, &c.

5. Philosophic (Alexandrian).

The Midrash of the schools was mainly Halakhic; that of the synagogues mostly Haggadic.

The word "Midrash" first occurs in 2 Chron. xiii. 22; "the Midrash of the prophet Iddo," xxiv. 24; "the Midrash of the Book of Kings."

The epochs of the Midrashim are three.

1. Its development from B.C. 30-A.D. 400. From Hillel to Gamaliel V.

2. Its collection from A.D. 400-750. From Gamaliel V. to R. Anan the Karaite.

3. Its decline from A.D. 750-900. From death of Anan to R. Aron ben Asher in Tiberias.

The Midrash is founded on extravagant application of the two principles that

i. Nothing in Scripture is indifferent or accidental.

ii. All Scripture is capable of indefinite interpretations (some said 49, and some 70).

The chief Midrashim are, in the first epoch during which the Halakha is predominant,

1. Mekhilta(" Tenor ") An Halakhic commentary on parts of Exodus, based on the methods of R. Aqiba.

2. Siphra ("The Book") or Torath Kohanim, on Leviticus. It origi

.(ספרא דבי רב) nated in the school of Rab in Sara

3. Siphri ("Books") on Numbers and Deuteronomy.

In the second epoch the Haggada was greatly developed, and the following works belong to it :

4. Pesikhta. On sections or selections of the Law and the Prophets by Rab. Kahana.

5. Midrash Rabba: one of the catenae collected in the thirteenth century. It consists of

Bereshith Rabba, on Genesis. 1

Shemoth Rabba, on Exodus.

Vajikra Rabba, on Leviticus.

Bamidbar Rabba, on Numbers.

Debarim Rabba, on Deuteronomy.

1 This is the best and oldest. It is Palestinian of the 6th century. It resembles, and quotes the Jerusalem Gemara.

Echa Rabbathi on Lamentations.

6. Tanchuma; on the Pentateuch. It is sometimes called Yelamdenu from its formula, "Our Rabbis have taught us."1

During the third epoch the Halakha became absolutely lifeless, and R. Anan the Karaite demanded a return to the natural and rational method of interpreting Scripture: but Haggadic catenae continued to be produced.

7. Jalqut Shimeoni; on the Old Testament. This was drawn up by R. Simeon in the thirteenth century, and resembles the Patristic

catenae.

8. Jalqut Chadash. It was compiled out of the Book Zohar in the Middle Ages.

Halakhic traditions outside the Mishna are called "extraneous" (Boraïtoth 2), and are collected in the Tosephta. The additions to the Mishna are called Tosephtoth; those to the Gemara are called Tosaphoth.

NOTE III.

RABBI JOHANAN BEN ZAKKAI.

It was the happy method of R. Johanan to propose a subject for discussion, to listen to the opinions given by all his associates, and finally to give his own judgment. Thus on one occasion he told his disciples to consider "which was the good way in which men should walk." They defended their several views as follows:

R. Eliezer. He should have a kindly eye.

R. Joshua. He should gain a sure friend.

R. Jose. He should strive to win a good neighbour.

R. Simon. He should always consider the consequences.

R. Eleazar. He should have a good heart.

3 From yasaph, "to add." The Tosephta was drawn up by R. Chija bar

Abba, a Tanaite, who also drew up a collection of Boraïtoth.

R. Johanan summed up the discussion by saying, "The best answer has been given by R. Eleazar, for the blessing which he has mentioned comprises all the others.”

On another occasion he proposed for discussion Prov. xiv. 34, which was rendered, "Righteousness exalteth a nation, but the mercy (D1) of nations is sin."

R. Eliezer. Righteousness exalteth Israel, but any good deeds done by the Gentiles are only sin.

R. Joshua. (To the same effect with different proofs.)

Rabbon Gamaliel II. (who was still a disciple). (To the same effect with other proofs, and an expression of uncertainty.)

R. Eliezer. (Still the same, with fresh proofs.)

R. Nechunjah. Righteousness and mercy exalt Israel, but sin degrades the nations.

R. Johanan. Righteousness atones for the nations of the world, just as a sin-offering does for Israel.1

This view showed at least the kindness of his heart (comp. Acts x. 34, 35); but he afterwards accepted R. Nechunjah's in preference.

Specimens of the admirable sayings and parables of R. Eliezer are given by Löw (Praktische Einleitung, 95, 103).

NOTE IV.

FURTHER INSTANCES OF EXEGETIC AND SYMBOLIC KABBALISM.

1. Gematria.

.(לו)

Is. xxx. 8. "Blessed are all those that wait upon Him The value of 1 is 36, so Abaii said that there are 36 in every generation who receive the presence of the Shekhinah. Sanhedrin, f. 97, 2.

Is. xx. 1. This is made a prophecy of Habakkuk (comp. Hab. ii. 1) because "lion = 216 = Habakkuk (see Rashi, Kimchi, and Ibn Ezra, ad loc.).

אֶחָת Here

Gen. xi. 1. All the inhabitants of the earth were of one language. 409, and is equivalent to p = 409 whence it was assumed that Hebrew was the primeval tongue.

=

The word D usually means "mercy" or "piety," and taking it in this sense Schultens and Grotius practically agree with R. Johanan, and make the verse mean "piety is an atonement for the people." But D is rendered overdos by the LXX. in Lev. xx. 17 (A. V. "ungodliness;" R. V. " a shameful thing"). Kalisch thinks that it gets this sense by antiphrasis.

2 Baba Bathra, f. 10, 2.

Gen. xviii. 2. "And lo! these men "" are Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael.”

=

by Gematria, "These

Jacob's ladder (DSD) is identified with Sinai (D), because both

=

=

210, therefore the Egyptian

come into the Holy Place."

1 + 400, therefore the first

=

Deut. xxxiii. 27. God is often described as "the Place" (maqom), because maqom 186, and Jehovah 102 +52 +62 + 5%. On the tomb of Emmanuel Deutsch in the Jewish cemetery at Alexandria, the Hebrew inscription, written by Dr. Hermann Adler, says that he "died in the year'Arise, shine, for thy light is come,'" It is a sort of chronogram. The text quoted gives the number 1873, the year in which the brilliant scholar died.

For other instances see Buxtorf, Lex. Chald. 8.v. ND; Buddeus, Philos. Ebr. p. 323.

2. Notarikon.

Each letter of the words "a father of many nations have I made thee" is made significant. Shabbath, f. 105, 1.

From Gen. xxxvii. 3 it is inferred that the "coat of many colours" was the source of all Joseph's troubles, because the letters of stand for the initials of the Hebrew words for "Potiphar, merchants, Ishmaelites, Midianites."

Deut. xxx. 12, "Who will go, up for us?" In the Hebrew the initials of these words given,"circumcision," and the final letters, "Jehovah." Hence it is inferred that circumcision is the way to Heaven. (See further Ginsburg, The Kabbalah, pp. 12, 50; Eccles. p. 30.)

3. Inferences from changing the reading.

א תקרי כן אלא כן (.Read not so but so »

Gen. xxv. 23. "Two nations are in thy womb." Read not ", 'nations," but D"), "men "" (as the Massora reads). The two men are Rabbi (Judah the Holy), the compiler of the Mishna, and his friend Antoninus the Emperor.

Deut. xxxiii. 4. "Moses commanded us a law, the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob." Read not, "inheritance," but D, "espoused," which shows that the Law is as a bride. Pesachim, f. 42, 2.

Gen. xlix. 22. "Joseph is. a fruitful bough by a well." Read not ryby, "by a well," but y bw, "above the eye”