Some flutes were double, and of various forms. Those most frequently mentioned, are the Tibia dextræ and sinistræ, pares and impares, which have occasioned so much disputation among critics, and still appear not to be sufficiently ascertained. The most probable opinion is, that the double flute consisted of two tubes, which were so joined together as to have but one mouth, and so were both blown at once. That which the musician played on with his right hand was called tibia dextra, the right-handed flute; with his left, tibia sinistra, the left-handed flute. The latter had but few holes, and sounded a deep serious base; the other had more holes, and a sharper and more lively tone. Plin. 16, 36. s. 66. Varr. R. R. 1, 2, 15. When two right or two left-handed flutes were joined together, they were called tibia pares dextra, or silia pares sinistra. The flutes of different sorts were called tibia impares, or tibiæ dextræ et sinistra. The right-handed flutes were the same with what were called the Lydian flutes, (Tibia Lydia), and the left-handed with the Tyrian flutes, (Tibie Tyria or Sarrana, vel Serrana.) Hence Virgil, Biforem dat tibia cantum, i. e. bisonum, imparem, En. ix. 618. Sometimes the flute was crooked, Virg. Æn. vii. 737. Ovid. Met. iii. 532. and is then called Tibia Phrygia or cornu, Id. de Pont. I. i. 39. Fast. iv. 181.

III. PANTOMIMES were representations by dumb-shew, in which the actors, who were called by the same name with their performances, (Mimi vel Pantomimi), expressed every thing by their dancing and gestures without speaking, loquaci manu; hence called also Chironomi,) Juvenal. xiii. 110. vi. 63. Ovid. Trist. ii. 515. Martial. iii. 86. Horat. i. 18, 13. ii. 2, 125. Manil. v. 474. Suet. Ner. 54. But Pantomimi is always put for the actors, who were likewise called Planipedes, because they were without shoes, (excalceati), Senec. Epist. 8. Quinctilian. v. 11. Juvenal. viii. 191. Gell. i. 11. They wore, however, a kind of wooden or iron sandals, called SCABILLA or Scabella, which made a rattling noise when they danced, Cic. Cal. 27. Sues. Cal. 54.

The Pantomimes are said to have been the invention of Augustus; for before his time the Mimi both spoke and acted. MIMUS is put both for the actor and for what he acted, Cic. Cal. 27. Verr. iii. 35. Rabir. Post. 12. Phil. ii. 27. not only on the stage, but elsewhere, Suet. Cas. 39. Ner. 4.Oth. 3. Calig. 45. Aug. 45, 100. Sen. Ep. 80. Juvenal. viii. 198. The most celebrated composers of mimical performances or Larces, (mimographi), were Laberius and Publius Syrus, in the

time of Julius Cæsar, Suet. Jul. 39. Horat. Sat. i. 10, 6. Gell. xvii. 14. The most famous Pantomimes under Augustus were Pylades and Bathyllus, the favourite of Maecenas, Tacit. Annal. i. 54. He is called by the Scholiast on Persius, v. 123. his freedman, (libertus Mæcenātis); and by Juvenal, mollis, vi. 63, Between them there was a constant emulation. Pylades being once reproved by Augustus on this account, replied, It is expedient for you, that the attention of the people should be engaged about us." Pylades was the great favourite of the public. He was once banished by the power of the opposite party, but soon after restored, Dio, liv. 17. Macrob. Sat. ii. 7. The factions of the different players, Senec. Ep. 47. Nat. Q. vii. 32. Petron. 5. sometimes carried their discords to such a length, that they terminated in bloodshed, Suet. Tib. 37.

66

The Romans had rope dancers (FUNAMBULI, Schanobate yel Neurobata), who used to be introduced in the time of the play, Ter. Hec. Prol. 4, 34. Juvenal. iii. 77. and persons who seemed to fly in the air, (PETAURISTA), who darted (jactabant vel excutiebant) their bodies from a machine called Petaurum, vel -us, Festus. Juvenal. xiv. 265. Manil. iii. 438. Martial ii, 86. also interludes or musical entertainments, called EMBOLIA, Cic. Sext. 54. or ACROAMǎTA; but this last word is usually put for the actors, musicians, or repeaters themselves, who were also employed at private entertainments, Cic. ibid. Verr.iv, 22.Arch.9. Suet. Aug. 74. Macrob. Sat. ii. 4, Nep. Att. 14.

The plays were often interrupted likewise by the people calling out for various shews to be exhibited; as, the representation of battles, triumphal processions, gladiators, uncommon animals, and wild beasts, &c. The noise which the peo ple made on these occasions, is compared by Horace to the raging of the sea, Epist. II. i. 185, &c. In like manner, their approbation, (plausus,) and disapprobation, sibilus, strepitus, fremitus, clamor tonitruum, Cic. Fam. viii. 2. fistula pastoritia, Att. 16.) which at all times were so much regarded, Cic. Pis. 27. Sext. 54, 55, 56, &c. Horat. Od. i. 20. ii. 17.

Those who acted the principal parts of a play, were called Actores primarum partium; the second, secundarum partium; the third, tertiarum, &c. Ter. Phorm. prol. 28. Cic, in Cæcil. 15. & Ascon. in loc.

The actors were applauded or hissed as they performed their parts, or pleased the spectators, Quinctilian. vi. 1. Cic. Rosc.Com. 2. Att. i. 3, 16. When the play was ended, an actor always said PLAUDITE, Terent. &c.

Those

Those actors, who were most approved, received crowns, &c. as at other games; at first composed of leaves or flowers, tied round the head with strings, called STRUPPI, strophia, v. -ila, Festus. Plin. xxi. 1. afterwards of thin plates of brass gilt, (e lamina area tenui inaurata aut inargentata), called CoROLLE or corollaria; first made by Crassus of gold and silver, Plin. xxi. 2, 3. Hence COROLLARIUM, a reward given to players over and above their just hire, (additum præterquam quod debitum est), Varro de Lat. Ling. iv. 36. Plin. Ep. vii. 24. Cic. Verr. iii. 79. iv. 22. Suet. Aug. 45. or any thing given above what was promised, Cic. Verr. iii. 50. Plin. ix. 35. s. 57. The Emperor M. Antoninus ordained that players should receive from five to ten gold pieces, (aurei), but not more, Capitolin. 11.

The place where dramatic representations were exhibited, was called THEATRUM, a theatre, (a beaoua, video.) In. antient times the people viewed the entertainments standing; hence stantes for spectators, Cic. Amic. 7. and, A. U. 599, a decree of the senate was made, prohibiting any one to make seats for that purpose in the city, or within a mile of it. the same time a theatre, which was building, was, by the appointment of the censors, ordered to be pulled down, as a thing hurtful to good morals, (nociturum publicis moribus), Liv. Epit. xlviii. Valer. Max. ii. 4, 3.

At

Afterwards temporary theatres were occasionally erected. The most splendid was that of M. Æmilius Scaurus, when ædile, which contained 80,000 persons, and was adorned with amazing magnificence, and at an incredible expence, Plin. xxxvi. 15, s. 24, 8.

Curio, the partisan of Cæsar, at the funeral exhibition in honour of his father, (funebri patris munere), made two large theatres of wood, adjoining to one another, suspended each on hinges, (cardinum singulorum versatili suspensa libra. mento), and looking opposite ways, (inter se aversa), so that the scenes should not disturb each other by their noise, (ne invicem obstreperent); in both of which he acted stage plays in the former part of the day; then having suddenly wheeled them round, so that they stood over against one another, and thus formed an amphitheatre, he exhibited shews of gladiators in the afternoon, Plin. xxxvi. 15.

Pompey first reared a theatre of hewn stone in his second consulship, which contained 40,000; but that he might not incur the animadversion of the censors, he dedicated it as a

temple

temple to Venus, Suet. Claud. 21. Tertullian de Spect. 10. Plin. viii. 7. Dio, xxxix. 38. Tacit. xiv. 19. There were afterwards several theatres, and in particular those of Marcellus, Dio, xliii. 49. and of Balbus, near that of Pompey, Ovid. Trist. iii. 12, 13. Amor. ii. 7, 3. hence called tria theatra, the three theatres, Suet. Aug. 45. Ovid. Art. iii. 394. Trist. iii. 12, 24.

Theatres at first were open at top, and, in excessive heat or rain coverings were drawn over them, as over the amphi theatre, Plin. xix. 1. s, 6. xxxvi. 15. s. 24. Lucret. iv. 73. but in later times they were roofed, Stat. Sylv. iii. 5, 91.

Among the Greeks public assemblies were held in the theatre, Cic. Flacc. 7. Tacit. ii. 80. Senec. Epist. 108. And among the Romans it was usual to scourge malefactors on the stage, Suet. Aug 47. This the Greeks called Ocaтgigeiv et яaçadeiyua τίζειν.

The theatre was of an oblong semicircular form, like the half of an amphitheatre, Plin. xxxvi. 16. The benches or seats (gradus vel cunei) rose above one another, and were distributed to the different orders in the same manner as in the amphitheatre. The foremost rows next the stage, called Orchestra, were assigned to the senators and ambassadors of foreign states; fourteen rows behind them to the equites, and the rest to the people, Suet. Aug, 44. The whole was called CAVEA. The foremost rows were called Cavea prima, or ima; the last, cavea ultima or summa, Cic. Senect. 14. The middle, cavea media, Suet. ibid.

The parts of the theatre allotted to the performers, were called Scena, Postscenium, Proscenium, Pulpitum, and Orchestra.

1. SCENA, the scene, was adorned with columns, statues, and pictures of various kinds, according to the nature of the plays exhibited, Vitruv. v. 8, to which Virgil alludes, Æn. i, 166, 432. The ornaments sometimes inconceivably magnificent, Valer. Max. ii. 4, 6. Plin. xxxvi. 15. S. 24.

When the scene was suddenly changed by certain machines, it was called SCENA VERSATILIS; when it was drawn aside, SCENA DUCTILIS, Serv. ad. Virg. G. iii. 24.

The scenery was concealed by a curtain, (AULÆUM vel Siparium, oftener plural -a), which, contrary to the modern custom, was dropt (premebatur) or drawn down, as among us the blinds of a carriage, when the play began, and raised (tollebatur) or drawn up when the play was over; sometimes also between the acts, Horat. Ep. ii. 1, 189. Art. Poet. 154. Ovid.

Met.

Met. iii. 111. Juvenal. vi. 166. The machine by which this was done was called EXOSTRA, Cic. prov. Cons. 6. Curtains and hangings of tapestry were also used in private houses, Virg. Æn. i. 701. Horat. Od. iii. 29. 15. Sat. ii. 8. 54. called Aulaa Attalica, because said to have been first invented at the court of Attalus, king of Pergamus, in Asia Minor, Propert. ii. 23. 46. Serv. in Virg. Æn. i. 701.

2. POSTCENIUM, the place behind the scene, where the actors dressed and undressed; and where those things were supposed to be done, which could not with propriety be exhibited on the stage, Horat. de Art. P. 182. Lucret. iv. 1178.

3. PROSCENIUM, the place before the scene, where the actors appeared.

The place where the actors recited their parts was called PULPITUM; and the place where they danced, ORCHESTRA, which was about five feet lower than the Pulpitum, Vitruv. v. 6. Hence Ludibria scenâ et pulpito digna, buffooneries fit only for the stage, Plin. Ep. iv. 25.

MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE ROMANS.

I. LEVYING of SOLDIERS.

THE 'HE Romans were a nation of warriors. Every citizen was obliged to enlist as a soldier when the public service required, from the age of seventeen to forty-six; nor at first could any one enjoy an office in the city, who had not served ten campaigns, Polyb. vi. 17. Every foot soldier was obliged to serve twenty campaigns, and every horseman ten. first none of the lowest class was enlisted as soldiers, nor freedmen, unless in dangerous junctures, Liv. x. 21. xxii. 11. 57. But this was afterwards altered by Marius, Sallust. Jug. 86. Gell. xvi. 10.

At

The Romans, during the existence of their republic, were almost always engaged in wars; first with the different states of Italy for near 5c0 years, and then for about 200 years more in subduing the various countries which composed that immense empire.

The Romans never carried on any war without solemnly proclaiming