officers in red coats, Juvenal. vi. 399. and, according to some, by the lictors who attended the consul in war, Liv. xli. 10. xlv. 39. CHLAMYS was likewise the name of a travelling dress, (vestis viatoria): hence Chlamydatus, a traveller or foreigner, Plaut. Pseud. iv. 2. 8. sc. 7. 49.

The military cloak of the officers and soldiers was called. SAGUM, also Chlamys, Plaut. Rud. ii. 2. 9. an open robe drawn over the other cloaths and fastened with a clasp, Suet. Aug. 26. opposed to toga the robe of peace. When there was a war in Italy, (in tumultu), all the citizens put on the sagum: Hence Est in sagis civitas, Cic. Phil. viii. 11. sumere saga, ad saga ire; et redire ad togas, Id. v. 12. xiv. 1. also put for the general's robe; thus, Punico lugubre mutavit sagum, i. e. deposuit coccineam chlamydem Antonius, et accepit nigram, laid aside his purple robe and put on mourning, Horat. Epod. ix. 27.

III. DISCIPLINE of the ROMANS, their MARCHES and ENCAMPMENTS.

THE discipline of the Romans was chiefly conspicuous in their marches and encampments. night, even in the longest marches, without pitching a camp, They never passed a and fortifying it with a rampart and ditch, Liv. xliv. 39. Sallust. Jug. 45. & 91. Persons were always sent before to chuse and mark out a proper place for that purpose, (castra metari). Hence called MÉTÁTORES; thus, Alteris castris vel secundis, is put for altero die, the second day; tertiis castris, quintis castris, &c. Tacit. Hist.iii. 15. iv. 71. Cas. B. G. vii. 36.

When the army staid but one night in the same camp, or even two or three nights, it was simply called castra, and in later ages MANSIO; which word is also put for the journey of one day, Plin. xii. 14. or for an inn, Suet. Tit. 10. as σταθμός among the Greeks.

When an army remained for a considerable time in the same place, it was called Castra STATIVA, a standing camp, ÆSTIVA, a summer camp; and HIBERNA, a winter camp, (which was first used in the siege of Veji), Liv. v. 2. Hibernacula adificavit, xxiii. 39.

The winter quarters of the Romans were strongly fortified, and furnished, particularly under the emperors, with every accommodation like a city, as storehouses, (armaria), workshops, (fabrica), an infirmary, (valetudinarium), &c. Hence from them many towns in Europe are supposed to have had

their origin; in England particularly, those whose names end in cester or chester.

The form of the Roman camp was a square, (quadrata), and always of the same figure, Polyb. vi. 25. In later ages, in imitation of the Greeks, they sometimes made it circular, or adapted it to the nature of the ground, Veget. i. 23. It was surrounded with a ditch, (FOSSA), usually nine feet deep and twelve feet broad, and a rampart (VALLUM,) composed of the earth dug from the ditch, (AGGER), and sharp stakes, (sudes, VALLI vel pali), stuck into it, Virg. G. ii. 25. Cas. B. Civ. ii. 1. 15. Polyb. xvii. 14.

& 15.

The camp had four gates, one on each side, called Porta PRÆTORIA, vel Extraordinaria, next the enemy, Liv. xl. 27. DECUMANA, opposite to the former, (ab tergo castrorum et hosti aversa, vel ab hoste), Liv. iii. 5. x. 32. Cæs. B. G. 24. Civ. iii. Porta PRINCIPALIS DEXTRA and PRINCIPALIS SINISTRA, Liv. xl. 27.

ii.

79.

The camp was divided into two parts, called the upper and lower.

The upper part (pars castrorum superior), was that next the porta prætoria, in which was the general's tent, (ducis ta. bernaculum), called PRÆTORIUM, also AUGURALE, Tacit. Annal. ii. 13. xv. 30. from that part of it where he took the auspices, (auguraculum, Fest. vel auguratorium, Hygin. de castramet.) or AUGUSTALE, Quinctil. viii. 2. 8. witha sufficient space around for his retinue, the prætorian cohort, &c. On one side of the Pratorium were the tents of the lieutenantgenerals, and on the other that of the Quæstor, QUÆSTO. RIUM, which seems antiently to have been near the porta'decumana, hence called Questoria, Liv. x. 32, xxxiv. 47. by the quæstor's tent was the FORUM, called also QUINTANA, where things were sold and meetings held, Liv. xli. 2. Suet. Ner. 26. Polyb. vi. 38. In this part of the camp were also the tents of the tribunes, prefects of the allies, the Evocati, Ablecti, and Extraordinarii, both horse and foot. But in what order they were placed does not appear from the classics. We only know that a particular place was assigned both to officers and men, with which they were all perfectly acquainted.

Hard

The lower part of the camp was separated from the upper by a broad open space, which extended the whole breadth of the camp, called PRINCIPIA, Liv. vii. 12. where the tribunal of the general was erected, when he either administered justice or harangued the army, Tacit. Annal. i. 67. Hist. iii. 13. where the tribunes held their courts (jura reddebant), Liv. xxviii. 24, and punishments were inflicted, Suet. Oth. i.

Aug.

Aug. 24. Liv. viii. 32. ix. 16. the principal standards of the army, and the altars of the gods stood, Tacit. Annal. i. 39. also the images of the emperors, Id. iv. 2. xv. 29. by which the soldiers swore, Liv. xxvi. 48. Horat. Od. iv. 5. Ep. ii. 1, 19, and deposited their money at the standards, (ad vel apud signa), as in a sacred place, Suet. Dom. 7. each a certain part of his pay, and the half of a donative, which was not restored till the end of the war, Veget. ii. 20.

In the lower part of the camp the troops were disposed in this manner: The cavalry in the middle; on both sides of them the Triarii, Principes, and Hastati; next to them on both sides were the cavalry and foot of the allies, who, it is observable, were always posted in separate places, lest they should form any plots, (ne quid nova rei molirentur), by being united. It is not agreed what was the place of the Velites. They are supposed to have occupied the empty space between the ramparts and the tents, which was 200 feet broad. The same may be said of the slaves, (CALONES vel servi), and retainers or followers of the camp, (LIXE, qui exercitum seque bantur, quæstûs gratiâ, Festus), Liv, xxiii. 16. These were little used in antient times. A common soldier was not allow. ed a slave, but the officers were, Sallust. Jug. 45. The Lixa were sometimes altogether prohibited, ibid. At other times. they seem to have staid without the camp, in what was called PROCESTRIA (adifica extra castra), Festus; Tacit. Hist. iv. 22,

The tents (tentoria) were covered with leather or skins extended with ropes: hence sub pellibus hiemare, Flor. i. 12. durare, Liv. v. 2. haberi, Id. 37. 39. retineri, in tents, or in camp, Tacit. Ann. 13. 35. So Cic. Acad. iv. 2.

In each tent were usually ten soldiers, with their decanus or petty officer who commanded them, (qui iis prafuit); which was properly called CONTUBERNIUM, and they Contubernales. Hence young noblemen under the general's particular care, were said to serve in his tent, (contubernio ejus militare), and were called his CONTUBERNALES, Suet. Jul. 42. Cic. Cal. 30. Plang. 21. Sallust. Jug. 64. Hence, Vivere in contubernio alicujus, to live in one's family, Plin. ep. vii. 24. Contubernalis, a companion, Id. i. 19. x. 3. The centurions and standardbearers were posted at the head of their companies.

The different divisions of the troops were separated by intervals, called VIE. Of these there were five longwise, (in Longum), i, e. running from the decuman towards the prætorian side; and three across, one in the lower part of the camp, called Quintana, and two in the upper, namely, the Principia already described, and another between the Pratorium and

the

the Prætorian gate. The rows of tents between the via were called STRIGE, (puμα.)

In pitching the camp, different divisions of the army were appointed to execute different parts of the work, under the inspection of the tribunes or centurions, Juvenal. viii. 147. as they likewise were during the encampment to perform different services, (ministeria), to procure water, forage, wood, &c. From these certain persons were exempted, (immunes operum militarium, in unum pugnæ laborem reservati, Liv. vii. 7.) either by law or custom, as the Equites, Val. Max. ii. 9. 7. the Evocati and veterans, Tacit. Annal. i. 36. or by the favour (beneficio) of their commander; hence called BENEFICIARII, Festus, Cas. B. C. i. 75. But afterwards this exemption used to be purchased from the centurions, which proved most pernicious to military discipline, Tacit. Annal. i. 17. Hist. i. 46. The soldiers obliged to perform these services were called MUNIFICES, Veget. ii. 7. 19.

Under the emperors there was a particular officer in each legion who had the charge of the camp, called PRÆFECTUS CASTRORUM, Tacit. Annal. i. 20. xiv. 37. Hist. ii. 29. Veget. ii. 10.

A certain number of maniples were appointed to keep guard at the gates, on the rampart, and in other places of the camp, before the Prætorium, the tents of the Legati, Quæstor, and tribunes, both by day and by night, (agere excubias vel stationes et vigilias), who were changed every three hours, Polyb. vi. 33.

EXCUBIE denotes watches either by day or night; VIGILIE, only by night. Guards placed before the gates were properly called STATIONES, on the rampart CUSTODIE, Liv. xxv. 40. xliv. 33. But statio is also put for any post; hence, Vetat Pythagoras injussu imperatoris, id est, Dei, de præsidio et statione vita decedere, Cic. Sen. 20. Whoever deserted his station was punished with death, Suet. Aug. 24.

Every evening before the watches were set, (antequam vigilia disponerentur), the watch-word (symbolum) or private signal, by which they might distinguish friends from foes, Dio, xliii. 34. was distributed through the army by the means of a square tablet of wood in the form of a die, called TESSERA from its four corners, (teoσapes, -a, quatuor). On it was inscribed whatever word or words the general chose, which he seems to have varied every night, Polyb. vi. 32.

A frequent watch-word of Marius was LAR DEUS; of Sulla, APOLLO DELPHICUS, and of Cæsar, VENUS GENITRIX, &c. Serv. ad Virg. Æn. vii. 637, of Brutus, LIBERTAs, Dio, 47.43. It was given (tessera data est) by the general to the tribunes and prefects of the allies, by them to the centurions,

and

and by them to the soldiers. The person who carried the Tessara from the tribunes to the centurions, was called TESSERARIUS, Tacit. Hist. i. 25.

In this manner also the particular commands of the general were made known to the troops, Liv. vii. 35. ix. 32. xxvii. 46. xxviii. 14. Suet. Galb. 6. which seems likewise sometimes to have been done viva voce, Liv. xlv. 33.

Every evening when the general dismissed his chief officers and friends, (cum PRETORIUM dimittebat), after giving them his commands, all the trumpets sounded, Liv, xxx. 5. xxi. 54. xxvi. 15. xxxvii. 5.

Certain persons were every night appointed to go round (circumire vel obire) the watches; hence called CIRCUITORES, vel Ciratores. This seems to have been at first done by the equites, Liv. xxii. 1. and tribunes, Id. xxviii. 24. on extraordinary occasions by the legati and general himself, Sallust. Jug.45. At last particular persons were chosen for that purpose by the tribunes, Veget. iii. 8.

The Romans used only wind-instruments of music in the army. These were the TUBA, straight like our trumpet; CORNU, the horn, bent almost round; BUCCINA, similar to the horn, commonly used by the watches; LITUUS, the clarion, bent a little at the end, like the augur's staffor lituus; all of brass: Whence those who blew them were called ÆNEATORES, Suet. Jul. 32. The Tuba was used as a signal for the foot, the Lituus for the horse, Acron. ad Horat. Od. i. 1. 23. but they are sometimes confounded, Virg. Æn. vi. 167. and both called Concha, because first made of shells, Id. 171. The signal was given for changing the watches (vigiliis mutandis) with a trumpet or horn (tuba), Lucan. viii. 24. (buccinâ), Liv. vii. 35 Tacit. Hist. v. 22. hence ad tertiam buccinam, for vigiliam, Liv. xxvi. 15. and the time was determined by hour-glasses, (per clepsydras), Veget. iii. 8. See p. 248.

A principal part of the discipline of the camp consisted in exercises, (whence the army was called EXERCITUS), walking and running (decursio) completely armed, Liv. xxiii. 35. xxvi. 51. xxix. 22. Polyb. vi. 20. leaping, swimming, Suet. Aug. 65. vaulting (salitio) upon horses of wood, Veget. i. 18. shooting the arrow, and throwing the javelin; attacking a wooden figure of a man as a real enemy, (exercitia ad palum, vel PALAKIA), Juvenal. vi. 246. the carrying of weights, &c. Virg. G. iii. 346.

When the general thought proper to decamp, (castra movere), he gave the signal for collecting their baggage (colligendi pasa), whereupon all took down their tents, (tabernacula deten

debant,)