ing the sails, (expandere vel contrahere vela), plying or checking the oars, (incumbere remis vel eos inhibere), &c. Virg. v. 12. x. 218. Cic. Orat. i. 33. Att. xiii. 21.

It was his part to know the signs of the weather, to be acquainted with ports and places, and particularly to observe the winds and the stars, Ovid. Met. iii. 592. Lucan. viii. 172. Virg. En. iii. 201. 269. 513. For as the ancients knew not the use of the compass, they were directed in their voyages chiefly by the stars in the night-time, Horat. Od. ii. 16. 3. and in the day-time by coasts and islands which they knew. In the Mediterranean, to which navigation was then chiefly confined, they could not be long out of the sight of land. When overtaken by a storm, the usual method was to drive their ships on shore, (in terram agere vel ejicere), and when the danger was over, to set them afloat again by the strength of arms and levers. In the ocean they only cruised along the coast

In some ships there were two pilots, Ehan. ix. 40. who had an assistant called PRORETA, Plaut. Rud. iv. 3. 75. i. e. Custos et tutela prora, who watched at the prow, Ouid. Met. iii. 617.

He who had command over the rowers was called HORTATOR and PAUSARIUS, (xEXEUrns), Plaut. Merc. iv. 2. 4. Senec. Epist. 56. Ovid. ibid. or PORTISCULUS, Plaut. Asin. iii. 1. 15. Festus, which was also the name of the staff or mallet with which he excited or retarded them, (celeus mata vel hortamenta dabat), Plaut. Asin. iii. 1. 15. Isid. Orig. xix. 12. He did this also with his voice in a musical tone, that the rowers might keep time in their motions, Serv. ad Virg. Æn. iii. 128. Sil. v. 360. Valer. Flacc. i. 470. Martial. iii. 67. iv. 64. Quinctil. i. 10. 16. Stat. Theb. vi. 800. Ascon. in Cic. divin. 17. Hence it is also applied to the commanders, Dio, L. 32. Those who hauled or pulled a rope, who raised a weight, or the like, called HELCIARII, used likewise to animate one another with a loud cry, Martial. ibid. hence Nauticus clamor, the cries or shouts of the mariners, Virg. Æn. iii. 128. v. 140. Lucan. ii. 688.

Before a fleet (CLASSIS) set out to sea, it was solemnly reviewed (lustrata est) like an army. Cic. Phil. xii. 3. prayers were made and victims sacrificed,' Liv. xxix. 27. xxxvi. 42. Appian. Bell. Civ. v. Virg. Æn. iii. 118. v. 772. Sil. xvii. 48. The auspices were consulted, Val. Max. i. Hor. Epod. x. 1. 16. 24. and if any unlucky omen happened, as a person sneezing on the left, or swallows alighting on the ships. &c. the voyage was suspended, Polyan, iii. 10. Frontin. i. 12.

The

The mariners when they set sail or reached the harbour, decked the stern with garlands, Virg. Æn. iv. 418. G. i. 303.

There was great labour in launching (in deducendo) the ships, Virg. Æn. iv. 397. for as the ancients seldom sailed in winter, their ships during that time were drawn up, (subducta) on land, Horat. Od. ì. 4. 2. Virg. Æn. i. 555. and stood on the shore, Virg. En. iii. 135. 177.

They were drawn to sea by ropes and levers, (vectibus),. with rollers placed below, (cylindris lignisque teretibus et rotundis subjectis), called PALANGES, vel -ga, Cas. B. C. ii. or ScuTULE, Ibid. iii. 34. and according to some, lapsus rotarum ; but others more properly take this phrase for rotæ labentes, wheels, Virg. Æn. ii. 236.

Archimedes invented a wonderful machine for this purpose, called HELIX. Athen. v. Plutarch. in Marcell.-Sil. Ital. xiv. 352.

Sometimes ships were conveyed for a considerable space by land, Liv. xxv. 11. Sil. xii. 441. Suet. Cal. 47. and for that purpose they were sometimes so made, that they might be taken to pieces, Curt. viii. 10. Justin. xxxii. 3. a practice still in use. Augustus is said to have transported some ships from the open sea to the Ambracian gulf near Actium, on a kind of wall covered with the raw hides of oxen; Dio, L. 12. in like manner over the Isthmus of Corinth, Id. LI. 5. Strab. viii.. 335. So Trajan, from the Euphrates to the Tigris, Id. xlviii. 28.

The signal for embarking was given with the trumpet. Lucan. ii. 690. They embarked (conscendebant) in a certain order, the mariners first and then the soldiers, Liv. xxix. 25. xxii. 16. They also sailed in a certain order, Virg. Æn. v. 833. the light vessels usually foremost, then the fleet or ships of war, and after them the ships of burden. But this order was often changed, Liv. passim.

When they approached the place of their destination, they were very attentive to the objects they first saw, in the same manner as to omens at their departure, Virg. Æn. iii. 537Liv. xxix. 27. XXX. 25.

When they reached the shore, (terram appulerunt), and landed (exposuerunt) the troops, prayers and sacrifices again were made, Liv. xxxvii. 14 47.

If the country was hostile, and there was no proper harbour, they made a naval camp, (castra navalia veľ nautica) and drew up their ships on land, (subducebant), Liv. xxx. 9. 10. xxiii. 28. Cas. B. G. iv. 21. They did so, especially if they were

to winter there, Liv. xxxvi. 45. xxxviii. 8. But if they were to remain only for a short time, the fleet was stationed in some convenient place, (ad anchoram stabat, vel in statione tenebatur), not far from land, Liv. xxxi. 23. xxxvii. 15. xxiv. 17. Cæs. B. C. iii. 6. iv. 21. B. Alex. 25.

Harbours (PORTUS) were most strongly fortified, especially at the entrance, (aditus vel introitus; os, ostium, vel fauces), Virg. Æn. i. 404.Cic. et Liv. The two sides of which, or the piers, were called CORNUA, Cic. Att. ix. 14. Lucan. ii. 615.706. or BRACHIA, Plin. ep. vi. 31. Suet. Claud.20. Liv. xxxi. 26. on the extremities were erected bulwarks and towers, Vitruv. v. 11. There was usually also a watch-tower, (PHAROS, plur. -2), Ibid. with lights to direct the course of ships in the night-time, as at Alexandria in Egypt, Cas. B.C. iii.ult.Plin.xxxvi. 12. at Ostia and Ravenna, Ibid. at Capreæ, Brundusium, and other places, Suet. Tib. 74. Cal. 46. Stat. Sylv. iii. 5. 100. A chain sometimes was drawn across as a barrier or boom, (claustrum), Frontin. Stratagem. i. 5. 6.

Harbours were naturally formed at the mouths of rivers; hence the name of OSTIA at the mouth of the Tiber, Serv. ad Virg. Æn. v. 281. Liv. i. 33. xxvi. 19. Dionys. iii. 45. Ovid calls the seven mouths of the Nile, septem PORTUS, Her. xiv. 107. Amor. ii. 13. 10.

Harbours made by art (manu vel arte) were called COTнONES, vel -NA, -orum, Serv. ad Virg. Æn. i. 431. Festus.

Adjoining to the harbour were docks (NAVALIA, -ium), where the ships were laid up, (subducta), careened and refitted, (refecta), Cic. Off. ii. 17. Liv. xxxvii. 10. Cæs. B. C. ii. 3. 4. Virg. iv. 593. Ovid. Amor. ii. g. 21.

Fleets about to engage were arranged in a manner similar to armies on land. Certain ships were placed in the centre, (media acies), others in the right wing, (dextrum cornu), and others in the left; some as a reserve, (subsidium, naves subsidiaria), Hirt. de Bell, Al. 10. Liv. xxxvii. 23. 29. xxxvi. 44. We find them sometimes disposed in the form of a wedge, a forceps, and a circle, Polyb. i. Polyan. iii. Thucyd. ii. but most frequently of a semicircle or half moon, Veget. iv. 45. Sil. xiv. 370.

Before the battle, sacrifices and prayers were made as on land; the admiral sailed round the fleet in a light galley, (navis actuaria), and exhorted the men.

The soldiers and sailors made ready (se expediebant) for action; they furled the sails and adjusted the rigging; for they never chose to fight but in calm weather, Liv. xxvi. 39•

A red

A red flag was displayed from the admiral's ship, as a sig. nal to engage. The trumpets in it and all the other ships were sounded, Sil. xiv. 372. and a shout raised by all the crews, Lucan. iii. 540. Dio, xlix. 9.

The combatants endeavoured to disable or sink the ships of the enemy, by sweeping off (detergendo) the oars, or by striking them with their beaks, chiefly on the sides, Dio, L. 29. They grappled with them by means of certain machines called crows, (CORVI), iron hands or hooks, (FERREE MANUS), Lucan. iii. 635. drags or grappling irons, HARPAGONES, i. e. asseres ferreo unco prafixi), &c. and fought as on land, Flor.ii. 2. Liv. xxvi. 39. xxx. 10. Cas. B. G. i. 52. Curt. iv. 9. Lucan. xi. 712. Dio, xxxix. 43.-xlix. 1. 3. &c. They sometimes also employed fire ships, Hirt. B. Alex. 11. or threw firebrands, and pots full of coals and sulphur, with various other combustibles, Stuppea flamma manu, telisque volatile ferrum spargitur, Virg. Æn. viii. 694. which were so successfully employed by Augustus at the battle of Actium, that most of Antony's fleet was thereby destroyed, Dio, L. 29. 34, and 35. Hence Vix una sospes navis ab ignibus, Horat. od. i. 37. 13. In sieges they joined vessels together, and erected on them various engines, Curt. iv. 13. Liv. xxiv. 34. xxvi. 26. Cæs. B. C. iii. 34. or sunk vessels to block up their harbours, Ibid. et Liv. XXXV. 11. 14.

The ships of the victorious fleet, when they returned home, had their prows decked with laurel, and resounded with triumphant music, Dio, LI. 5.

The prizes distributed after a victory at sea were much the same as on land. (See p. 385.) Also naval punishments, pay, and provisions, &c. Liv. xxiii. 21. 48.

The trading vessels of the ancients were in general much inferior in size to those of the moderns, Cicero mentions a number of ships of burden, none of which was below 2000 amphora (quarum minor nulla erat duûm millium amphorûm), i. e. about fifty-six ton, which he seems to have thought a large ship, Cic. Fam. xii. 15. There were, however, some ships of enormous bulk. One built by Ptolemy is said to have been 280 cubits, i. e. 420 feet long, and another 300 feet; the tonnage of the former 7182, and of the latter, 3197, Athenæus. The ship which brought from Egypt the great obelisk that stood in the Circus of the Vatican in the time of Caligula, besides the obelisk itself, had 120,000 modü of lentes, lentiles, a kind of pulse, for ballast, about 1138 ton, Plin. xvi. 40. s. 76.

CUSTOMS

CUSTOMS OF THE ROMANS.

1. The ROMAN DRESS.

THE distinguishing part of the Roman dress was the TOGA or gown, as that of the Greeks was the Pallium, Suet. Aug. 98. and of the Gauls, Bracca, breeches, Suet. Jul. 80. Claud. 15. Plin. Epist. iv. 11. whence the Romans were called GENS TOGÁTA, Virg. Æn. i. 286. Suet. Aug. 40. or TOGATI, Cic. Rosc. Am. 45. Verr. i. 29.ii. 62. Orat.i. 24. iii. 1. Sallust. Jug. 21. Tacit. Hist. ii. 20. and the Greeks, or in general those who were not Romans, PALLIATI, Suet. Cas. 4.8. Cic. Rabir. Post. 9. Phil. v. 5. and Gallia Cisalpina, when admitted into the rights of citizens, was called TOGATA, Cic. Phil. viii. 9. Hence also Fabula Togata et Palliata. (See P. 354.) As the toga was the robe of peace, togati is often opposed to armati, Liv. iii. 10. 50. iv. 10. Cic. Cæcin. 15 Off. i. 23. Pis. 3. and as it was chiefly worn in the city, (ibi, sc. rure, nulla necessitas toga, Plin. ep. v. 6.) it is sometimes opposed to RUSTICI, Plin. vi. 30.

The Romans were particularly careful in foreign countries, always to appear dressed in the toga, Cic. Rabir. 10. but this was not always done. Some wore the Greek dress; as Scipio in Sicily, Tac. Ann. ii. 59. So the Emperor Claudius at Naples, Dio, lxvi. 6.

The TOGA (a tegendo quod corpus tegat, Varro) was a loose (laxa) flowing (fluitans) woollen robe, which covered the whole body, round and close at the bottom, (ab imo,) but open at the top down to the girdle, (ad cincturum,) without sleeves; so that the right arm was at liberty, and the left supported a part (lacinia, a flap or lappet) of the toga, which was drawn up (subducebatur) and thrown back over the left shoulder, and thus formed what was called SINUS, a fold or cavity, upon the breast, in which things might be carried, Plin. xv. 18. Geil. iv. 18. and with which the face or head might be co