superlative by positive, or by inten- Compari sons. § 25. Present § 24. y. The positive replaces the superlative, especially in English, our superlative being often awkward in form, and less used; Cato vir justissimus, 'That just man Cato.' Cf. 21, 8-11; 33, 3; 37, 49; 38, 16. 8. Latin superlatives mean not only 'most' but 'very;' optimus = 'best,' 'one of the best,' 'very good,' or simply 'good.' Cf. 36, 1; 43, 4; 45, 23; 48, 9. €. Comparisons are made in Latin usually by simple co-ordinate clauses, the copula or copulative relative replacing our 'as,' 'than,' &c.; tantus ille quantus ego means strictly 'he is so great, and I am so great;' ille æque atque ego, 'he equally, and I equally.' § 25. a. The Latin present participle active is not so Participles freely used as in English, ef. §§ 18, 22, 31; the English -when not participle being often replaced (i) by the infinitive; e.g. Latin. (26) 39, cf. 26, 23; or by (ii) the historic imperfect or used in infinitive, as in descriptions, cf. (26) 15, and 26, 40; (iii) or by prepositions, cf. § 14; or (iv) by a co-ordinate clause, as in 31, 19; e.g. (i) mutari omnia videmus, 'we see all things changing.' (ii) pars arma capere, alii fugere, plerique metu torpebant, 'some seizing arms, others running away, most standing paralyzed with fear.' (iii) ob haec, de hoc, 'owing to this, concerning this.' (iv) caelum est mitissimum: oleas et vites profert; 'the climate is mild, producing both the vine and olive.' B. The Lat. pres. part. is strictly present and marks participle simultaneous action; loose English participles, present in form only, must be translated by past participle, quum with past subjunctive, postquam with indicative, &c.; Present strictly pre sent. cf. § 29 a. e. g. 'so saying, he left the house,' quum haec dixisset e domo exiit. Cf. 2, 1, 6, 14; 3, 19, 21; 8, 5, 13, &c. English pres. part. 'Pendent' impersonal participles, like 'considering,' § 25. 'excepting,' 'counting,' and even strictly present parti-pendent' ciples, may have to be translated by dum (mostly with pres. indic.), si (mostly with fut. perfect), quum and a verb, past. part., ablative absolute, &c. Cf. 24, 40, 41; 31, 3. § 25. 7. Subject to these rules the pres. part. may Lat. pres. be used in temporal, causal, conditional, modal, concessive part senses. Cf. 2, 14, 24; 3, 4, 22; 7, 29; 8, 21; 13, 14, 39; 20, 35; 22, 34-6; 24, 35, 40; 29, 30; 47, 2. when used, 8. It is frequently used in oblique cases where we esp. in use verbal clauses, cogitanti saepe occurrit. Cf. 3, 9; 38, 30; 39, 15. oblique cases, classes of E. It is constantly used in oblique cases (rarely in and for the nominative), especially in the genitive plural (as in men or Greek with the article), for classes of men or things. Cf. §§ 41 €, 42 a. Cf. Näg. § 29. Cf. 2, 15; 7, 20; 9, 4; 24, 47; 26, 36; 33, 14; 34, 8; 48, 9. things. passive 3. The present participle passive is wanting in Latin, Pres. part. and is replaced by verbal clause or the past participle wanting in passive in some cases, e. g. 'the besieged' qui obsidentur, (qui obsidebantur). Cf. Näg. § 28. Cf. 3, 10; 5, 7; 7, 31; 13, 34. η. Latin. part. 7. The present participle of English neuter verbs Eng. pres. will often have to be replaced by the past participle neuter. passive; e.g. Inde ad suos conversus. Cf. 7, 8; 13, 9. Past Parti § 26. a. The past participle active, being wanting in § 26. Latin except in deponents, is generally expressed by ciples quum, ut qui, &c., with the subjunctive, ubi, postquam, ing in Latin. with the indicative, ablative absolute, or simple adjective, active want English past part. pass. for Lat. preposition. Lat. past part. § 27. Verbs, §§ 27 -29. Tenses or by past participle passive in agreement with object e.g. vinctos (or quum vinxisset) eduxit. Cf. § 25 ß; 11, 1; 14, 1, &c. § 26. B. The past participle passive is often translated by prepositions or the ablative of a noun ('prompted by' ex, propter), or omitted altogether. Cf. § 28 €. Cf. (24), 23; (25) 24. The Latin past participle, from want of an article, cannot be so often used as in Greek for a substantive; though occasionally so used (as the present § 25 €); cf. Näg. § 28. 8. nor for an adjective. Cf. § 18 y. $ 27. α. The vague English present tense must often be replaced by future, futurum exactum, perfect or Present,&c., present subjunctive; and the perfect similarly by the in English. pluperfect; the future by the futurum exactum; e.g. cf. 25 B. scribes si quid habebis, 47, 10; quae formaveram dicto, 34, 10. inexact use cf. § 29 a. Verbal pleonasms and B. The English perfect, e. g. 'is written, &c.,' scriptum est, must be carefully distinguished from the present of the same form, scribitur. Cf. 29, 33; 34, 2; (36) 10; (38) 5, 15, 19, 24, 26; (42) 3; (46) 16; (49) 12, 21; 52, 5; (53) 12. § 28. a. In verbs as in nouns, (English) conventional periphrases periphrastic expressions and obsolete metaphors must be in English. replaced by simpler and more direct terms. 'He observed, remarked, replied, continued' = inquit (often omitted) 'I repeat,' inquam; and so ago, capio, esse, habere, ire, posse, facere, will often translate more artificial terms like "manage,' 'discuss,' ' embrace,' 'exist,' 'constitute,' 'deliver,' &c. The verbs 'to avail one's self,' 'assure,' 'represent,' 'allude,' 'qualify,' 'convey,' 'coinmunicate,' 'enhance,' will furnish other instances in some of their uses. Cf. 6, 1; 12, 21; 14, 3, 9; 15, 11; 25, 19; 31, 17; 35, 5; and (1) 26; (2) 2; (4) 6: (5) 10; (6) 13; (7) 31; (9) 24; (22) 25, 30, 34, 39. antithetical § 28. B. Antithetical repetitions of the verb (or of $28. Verbal pleoits equivalent) are mostly suppressed in Latin where un- nasms, and emphatic, one verb serving for two or more clauses. repetitions. cf. § 19 B. Cumulative repetitions however are common in oratory. Cf. (2) 13, 29; 7, 21. synonyms aries replace 7. Where the Latin verb is repeated, we, in English, English use a synonym for variety, or the auxiliaries 'did,' 'had,' or auxili&c., to represent the verb; but cf. 10, 15; 21, 16, 17; verb. (24) 47. iliary verbs S. Many verbs disappear altogether in translation, as Quasi-aux'succeeded in,' 'managed to,' 'failed to,' 'refrain,' 'con- (English) tinued to,' 'ended in,' 'keep,' 'cease,' 'begin,' ‘get,' ‘find,’ , disappear; &c. (cf. § 29 y), or are only represented by adverbs, or the negative. § 36. Cf. (15) 19; 23, 3, 14; (23) 16; (26) 4, 13, 35, 75; 44, 9. ciples. e. So also participles, marked with cruelty,' 'attended so too partiby circumstances,' &c.; 'a slave called Dama,' Dama quidam. Cf. § 21; 23, 3, 14; (24) 8. Strict use of Latin (cf. §§ 25 8, 27 B) § 29. a. Tenses (Latin) keep their strict time; use § 29. therefore for continued incomplete actions the imperfect, tenses in for single complete acts the aorist perfect (where we use the same tense for both); and the pluperfect where the action has preceded that of the perfect or imperfect, as you use the perfect when the action has preceded that of a present. imperfect, &c.; aorist. β. Remember that scripsi is έγραψα, γεγραφα, perfect and Ypayas exw, (scriptum habeo); that erat is not the same as fuit which (as vixit) conveys an idea of completed (sometimes terminated) existence, and is less often used; erat standing as an aorist instead, owing to the intrinsic idea of verbs of existence. Cf. (24) 51. N. d Latin im perf. para- § 30. Subjunc dicative: their one § 29. y. The Latin imperfect is often best translated by the periphrastic 'proceed' 'keep,' 'continue,' 'get,' &c., when the auxiliary 'was' (speaking, &c.) is not sufficient; or by adverbs like 'constantly,' ' often,'' still,' 'gradually;' generally by our loose aorist. Cf. 7, 33—6; 25, 3, 5, 15, &c. (25) 4, 21, &c.; (26), 13. § 30. a. Wherever a fact is stated directly, or referred tive and in- to objectively, the indicative must be used; where it is alluded to merely as an idea of the mind, or stated leading idea. indirectly as in oratio obliqua, the subjunctive. All mere conceptions, then, belong to the subjunctive, and a mental conception is implied in all its uses. Aims and objects are conceptions: so also causes not realized as facts: and wishes, and conditions-(though a condition may form such an obvious fact, that it is expressed as such, e.g. si lucet, lucet). Cf. 1, 20; 3, 6; 27, 8, 15; 37, 40; 46, 5. All mere conceptions belong to subjunctive. So-called pure conjunctives gen. elliptical and mere conception. In what sense the Of the six so-called pure uses of the conjunctive (Potential', Conditional, Concessive, Optative, Dubitative, Hortative, cf. the Primer, p. 141), five are strictly elliptical, dependent on verbs (as fac ut, suadeo ut, &c.) suppressed: such dependent clauses as mere conceptions naturally belong to the subjunctive. The 'conditional pure use' (as in 19, 14; 26, 38) is of course also a conception (vellem ire) dependent on a condition often unexpressed. Cf. 19, 14; 40, 1, 4, 33; 44, 10; 53, 19. It B. The future too it may be said is strictly pure future indic. conception, and should belong to the subjunctive. conception. may be seen indeed that etymologically it is closely connected with the subjunctive; both the future and fut. is or is not 1 The subjunctive has never the sense of possibility or potentiality. What can I do?' is only an inexact interchange of idiom for quid faciam? Petunt ut eant' no more proves a latent idea of licet or potest in the subj. than 'placet ire,' 'censeo esse,' shew a latent debere in the infinitive. |