THE founder of the sect by whom, under the denomination of Sikhs, the Punjaub has for half a century been governed, and to a great extent inhabited, was Nanac Shah, a Hindu of the tribe of Vedi, in the Chastrya caste. He was born in the year of Christ 1469, at a village called Talwandi, in the district of Bhatti, and province of Lahore; and from his earliest years is described as devoting himself to the study of truth, and to the contemplation of the Supreme Being. Many marvellous stories are told of him, of course, which all resolve themselves into this: that becoming satisfied of the many absurdities that abound in the popular belief of his countrymen, and discrediting the fables with which Mahommedanism is overspread, he not only adopted as his own creed a pure Theism, but did his best by persuasion and argument to bring others to the same way of thinking. Nanac, however, appears to have been a wise, as well as righteous reformer. He assumed, and with justice, that in the religions both of the Hindus and the Moslems, there was a common foundation of truth. He disavowed, therefore, every thing like an intention to root out either system; but sought to reconcile the disciples of each to reason, and to one another, by inviting them equally to return to the pure and simple faith from which both had been induced to stray. Accordingly he interfered but little with the usages of common life to which those with whom he conversed were accustomed. He endeavoured, indeed, to break down among Hindus the religious distinctions of caste, by proclaiming wherever he went that in the sight of God all men were equal. And on the other hand, he invited the Mahommedans to abstain from practises, such as the slaughter of the cow, which were offensive to the prejudices of their neighbours; but beyond these limits he never ventured. Nanac's teaching was simple, gracious, and therefore sublime. IIe endeavoured with all the power of his own genius, aided by the author

ity of writers of acknowledged weight on both sides, to impress upon Hindus and Mahommedans alike, a belief in the unity of the Godhead; while in their dealings one with another he inculcated love of toleration and an abhorrence of war; and his life was as peaceable as his doctrines.

The opinions of Nanac had gained so much ground while he lived, that at his death Guru Angard, his successor, found himself at the head of a numerous and continually increasing party. Like the founder of the sect, Angard was a teacher of reverence and devotion towards one God, and universal peace among men ; neither does any change appear to have been introduced into the Sikh tenets, till persecution and wrong drove a people benevolent in principle to gird on the sword, which they have never since laid aside. The outrage in question befel in 1606, when Argun-mal, Guru or chief teacher of the body, excited the jealousy of the Mohammedan rulers of the province, and was put to death. He had, by collecting the sacred treatises of his predecessors into a volume, and blending with them his own views on various important points, given a consistency and form to the religion of the Sikhs, such as it had not previously been seen to possess. And the dominant party taking the alarm, and as tradition records, having their bad passions ministered to by a rival, caused Argun to be cast into prison, where he died.

Argun left a son, Nar Govind by name, who, though young, possessed both talent and energy of character, and who succeeding to the chiefship, gave at once and for ever a new turn to the tastes and feelings of his followers. He put arms into their hands, and in the name of a religion of peace waged implacable war with the persecutors. Ie likewise so far broke in upon the ordinary habits of his people, that he permitted them to eat the flesh of all animals except the cow; thus marking his hatred of the Mahommedans by sanctioning

the use of swines'-flesh, which, though esteemed by the lower tribes of Hindus, is to the Moslem an abomination. Nar Govind is said to have worn in his girdle two swords; and being asked why he did so, made answer, "One is to avenge the death of my father, the other to destroy the miracles of Mahommed."

Five sons survived Argun, of whom two died without descendants; two more were driven to the mountains by the persecutions of the Mahommedans; while the fifth, his eldest, died before his father, leaving two sons, Daharmal and Nar Ray. The latter succeeded his grandfather in 1644, and owing, probably, to the vigour of Arungzebes' government, passed his days in peace. But in 1661, the year of his decease, a violent contest arose about the succession, which was referred to Delhi, and by the imperial court sent back again to be decided by the free votes of the Sikhs themselves. For as yet, it is worthy of remark, that the influence of the chief was purely spiritual. He did not affect temporal authority, neither was he followed into the field as one who sought to establish the independence of a people, or his own right to rule over them. His was the leadership of a sect; and as Arungzebe appears to have granted free toleration, so, in matters of civil arrangement, both Nar Ray and his religionists paid to Arungzebe a willing obedience. Accordingly the Sikhs, in 1664, elected Nar Creshn to be chief, in preference to Ram Ray, both being sons of Nar Ray; and on the demise of Creshn passed over Ram Ray Moullin, and placed his uncle, Tegh Behadur, at their head. This was one of the sons of Nar Govind, whom persecution had driven to the mountains; and now, again, he appears, chiefly through the malice of his nephew, to have suffered much disquiet. It must be acknowledged, however, that over this portion of Sikh history a considerable cloud has fallen. The truth is, that the sect was well-nigh crushed, in consequence of the endeavour of Nar Govind to raise it into political importance; and not till the dissolution of the Mogul empire, which ensued upon the death of Arungzebe, did it exhibit any marked signs of returning vitality.

Tegh Behadur suffered a violent death, and his son Guru Govind, cherished an implacable hatred of the murderers. Circumstances, moreover, favoured him more than they had done his warlike predecessor and namesake; and he took full advantage of them. He made his first appearance at the head of an armed band among the hills of Serinagar ; and when forced by superior numbers to abandon that theatre of operation, he repaired to the Punjaub, where a Hindu chief, in active rebellion against the government, welcomed him gladly. He was put in possession of Mak-haval, a town on the Sutlej, and of the villages dependant upon it, and set up forthwith for a prince as well as a highpriest. Crowds of warriors gathered round his standard, and he gained over converts to his religious opinions from day to day. All these he encouraged to devote themselves to steel, by carrying arms constantly about them, and using them freely. He would admit of no avenue to advancement except personal merit. He changed the name of the sect from Sikh to Singh, that is, Lion; and conferring upon all his followers alike the title which heretofore only the Rajaputs had borne, taught them to aspire after a similar military reputation, and to achieve it. He it was who commanded the Sikhs to wear blue dresses, and not to cut the hair either of their heads or beards. Like Argunmal, he was an author as well as a soldier; for he added to the AdeGrant'h of the former his own not less sacred volume, called the Podshah Ka-Grant'h, or book of the Tenth King, a title which he boldly assumed to himself, because he was the tenth Guru, or spiritual chief, from Nanac.

Guru Govind was for awhile successful in every undertaking. He overthrew Rajas and Zemundars on both sides of the Sutlej, till an appeal was made to Delhi, and Arungzebe sent an army against him. He fought with the resolution of despair, but was beaten from one post to another; and at length, after losing wives, children, and hosts of adherents, became a solitary wanderer and a maniac. He was the last spiritual head of the Sikhs, whom a prophecy is said to have forewarned that they should never be able to

number more than ten high-priests. But if as a religious body they lost their consistency, as a nation they became for awhile more terrible than ever. One Banda, or Bairagi, a devoted friend and follower of Guru Govind, seized the moment of Arungzebe's death to raise their banner again. He won many battles, committed frightful atrocities, overran all the country between the Sutlej and the Jumna, and was at last wholly routed by Abdel-Samad Khan, one of the ablest and most successful of the generals of the Emperor Forokhseer. The wreck of the more resolute among his troops sought shelter among the mountains northeast of the Punjaub, whither the pursuers were unable to follow them. Banda himself, with many more, was taken and put to death, while the mass of the people bent to the storm, and for awhile ceased to be overwhelmed by it.

It was thirty years subsequently to these events, when Nadar Shah carried his victorious arms into Hindostan, that the Sikhs appeared again as a party in the arena. They descended from their fastnesses, and falling upon the peaceful inhabitants of the Punjaub, robbed them of the property which they were endeavouring to secure from the rapacity of the Persian plunderer. In like manner they hung upon the rear of the Persian army during its return, and stripped it of much of the booty which had been gathered in Delhi and elsewhere. Emboldened, likewise, by the state of feebleness into which the empire had fallen, and seeing that both into Cabul and the Punjaub the death of Nadir had introduced anarchy, they began to aim at permanent conquests; and being joined by their ancient co-religionists, and finding willing converts every where, they gradually possessed themselves of the whole extent of the country of the five rivers. They appear, however, at this time, to have been destitute of a head, either civil or religious. Like the AngloSaxons, they followed a multitude of petty chiefs, who in a great council, called the Guru-mata, of which Guru Govind is said to have been the inventor, made choice, ere an important expedition was begun, of the warrior who should lead in it;

but the authority of the chief, as it was conferred upon him for a special purpose, so, as soon as the object for which it had been given was attained, it ceased of its own accord. Such a state of things, though it might render them formidable for attack, reduced them in defensive warfare to great weakness; and their inability to withstand a resolute and united enemy was proved in the contests which they endeavoured to sustain, now against the Affghans, and now against the Mahrattas. Ahmed Shah, as is well known, chastised them severely, and established his son, Timour Khan, as governor at Lahore; but he could not long maintain himself there, and was driven out. Next came the Mahrattas, who after seducing Surhind, marched to the capital of the Punjaub, and took possession. But the battle of Puniput in 1762, broke their strength for ever, and Lahore and all the districts dependant on it, passed once more under Affghan rule. Then followed a great battle, or rather surprise, when Ahmed fell upon the Sikhs unexpectedly, and cut to pieces 20,000 of them. But Ahmed abode in the country not more than a year, and his return to Cabul gave the signal for fresh risings, and led the way to new outrages. Finally, the chiefs began to quarrel among themselves, feuds being transmitted from father to son; and the nation became, in consequence, formidable to itself and to the weak governments which bordered upon it.

The Sikhs were in this state when Daulut Rao Scindia, being supported by an army of which French officers were at the head, not only checked their incursions into the upper province of Hindostan, but compelled their chiefs south of the Sutlej to pay tribute, and accept his protection. And had it not been for his war with the English, there is little doubt but that he would have made himself master of all the fertile provinces that lie between that river and the Indus.

Daulut Rao Scindia, after retreating across the Sutlej, was forced to capitulate; whereupon the Punjauband, to a considerable extent, the country between the Sutlej and the Jumna-submitted to the rule of the Sikhs. These set up, when in power,

the same form or system of government under which they had lived and fought during their season of difficulty. The smaller proprietors of the soil, the heads of villages and towns, and so forth,-the whole body, in short, of local governors and magistrates, paid obedience to one or other of twelve chiefs; for twelve aristocrats seem to have divided the land among them, and to have ruled over it with an authority co-equal-at least, in name-from about the year 1765 to 1773. The associations over which each sirdar, or chief, held rule were called Missuls. They varied both as to extent and military strength; the largest being able to furnish 10,000 horse for war, the smallest being assessed at 2500. For it is worthy of remark, that though for purposes of domestic administration each chief or sirdar was perfectly independent of the others, in case of danger from without, all were expected to act under a common standard. And the Guru-mata, or great council of the nation, composed entirely of chiefs, determined on whom should be conferred the honour as well as the responsibility of commanding the whole.

Runjeet Singh, the Lion of the Punjaub, and the true founder of the Sikh empire, derived his descent from one of these feudal chiefs. His grandfather, Churut Singh, was sirdar of the Sookeer-chuck Missul, and seems to have been one of the least powerful of the confederation, his retainers numbering no more than 2500 horse. Like his brother-chiefs, he was constantly at war, invading the territories of a neighbour or repelling invasion; and was killed in a feudal battle by the bursting of his own matchlock, though not, as the records of his nation aver, till he had slain a multitude of his enemies. died at a moment of much peril to his tribe, inasmuch as his son, Maha Singh, was a boy of only ten years old; and in the Punjaub, not less than elsewhere, the reign of a minor is almost always a feeble one.

He

But

the Missul held together, and Maha exhibiting, as he advanced towards man's estate, great vigour both of body and mind, it soon began to enlarge its influence. Moreover, Maha, like a politic chieftain, married the

daughter of a sirdar, who proved very serviceable to him; and almost as soon as his son and heir, Runjeet, was born, looked about for similar benefits to the nation through him. Accordingly, the Lion of the Punjaub, who first saw the light in the year 1780, was, in 1786, wedded, or, at least, betrothed, to a bride of his father's selection.

The education of Runjeet Singh appears to have been entirely neglected. He never learned so much as to read or to write. Nature, too, seems to have acted the part of a step-mother towards him; for he was attacked by the small-pox in his infancy, and not only had his face scored and deeply indented by it, but lost the sight of one of his eyes. He was unfortunate, moreover, in this respect, that his father died in the very flower of his days, being as yet under thirty; and Runjeet, at twelve years of age, was left to the guidance of tutors. They indulged him in every whim and caprice, insomuch that, up to his seventeenth year, his life was one of constant and frightful dissipation. Indeed, the national character was by this time wholly changed from that which its founder designed it to be. Excesses of all sorts, over-eating, over-drinking,the coarse feeding of the North combined, with the hideous vices of the East, to render the Sikh the most dissolute and depraved among all the families of men. And from his twelfth to his seventeenth year Runjeet Singh appears, in all these respects, not to have come short of the most dissolute of his subjects and countrymen.

Runjeet Singh was yet in the midst of his career of vice, when Shah Mahommed, from Cabul, broke in upon the Punjaub with a powerful army. Chief after chief went down before him; and Runjeet, among others, fled from his home and his government. But, in his case, misfortune appears to have operated beneficially. He awoke, as it were, to a sense of his proper duties, and forthwith devoted himself to the management of public affairs, and, in due time, to the aggrandisement of his Missul. He could not, indeed, offer to Shah Mahommed resistance in the field. His military strength was broken, and himself a fugitive;

but he managed to ingratiate himself into the good graces of the Affghan, and gathered up, by little and little, the fragments of his principality. At last, when Mahommed, after his insane march upon Delhi, returned, in 1798, if not defeated, at all events baffled, to his own land, Runjeet contrived to lay the victor under an obligation, and made the most of it. While crossing the Indus, eight or ten of the Affghan guns were upset, and sank into the river. There was no time to raise them, for Persia was up, and the Doorannee empire-very imperfectly consolidated, at the best -could not be exposed to invasion in any of its faces without imminent hazard. Whereupon, Mahommed commissioned his friend Runjeet to recover and send him back his artillery; and Runjeet obtained, as the reward of the service, a grant of Lahore. Let us do the old Lion justice. He raised the guns-if we recollect right, twelve in numberand retaining only four for his own use, sent the other eight to Peshawur.

Having thus tasted the sweets of command, and feeling the growth of ambition within him, Runjeet proceeded, with equal boldness and address, to extend the limits of his empire. Sometimes by a skilful diplomacy, sometimes by violence, he gained an ascendancy over his neighbours, till both in the Punjaub and in the territories east of the Sutlej they paid him tribute. So early as 1802 he had assumed a commanding position among the Sikh sirdars, and appeared nowise disposed to rest contented with it; and the dissensions which soon after arose in the royal family of Cabul presented an opening to his spirit of enterprise, of which it took immediate advantage. He marched into Mooltan, and though unsuccessful at first, ceased not to renew his attempts till he had subdued it. Eastward and northward, likewise, his victorious banners were borne; and he was looking with a covetous eye upon the provinces beyond the Indus, when, in 1805, the eruption of the Mahrattas, bringing Lord Lake and an English army in their train, recalled him. The part which Runjeet was now required to play proved both difficult and delicate. His respect for the power of England would have led him to re

fuse an asylum to the Mahrattas, had not the religious prejudices of his subjects, and in some sort his own, fallen into the opposite scale; and how to make the balance hang evenly, puzzled him much. He managed matters, however, with consummate address. Affecting good will for both parties, and seeking only to reconcile them, he managed to get rid of both without a collision, and marked his delight at their departure by committing such fearful excesses, in the course of the great religious festival of the Hoolee, that for four months he was not able to mount his horse.

The fame of Runjeet Singh was now spread throughout the whole of the country of the five rivers; and most of the chiefs having become his tributaries, the Missuls, or tribes, were absorbed and consolidated into a kingdom. He aspired, next, at the subjugation of the sirdars to the left of the Sutlej, and gave out that the Jumna was the proper line of demarkation between his dominions and those of the English. But he had not pushed his conquests far (though wherever he went Victory followed in his footsteps), ere the chiefs sent to implore the protection of the British government; and, in 1807, Mr., now Lord Metcalfe, set out upon the mission, which first established between the Sikhs and ourselves specific relations. At first, Runjeet exhibited little disposition to listen to the counsels of moderation which the English envoy conveyed to him. He was in the full tide of conquest, and conquerors are seldom willing to stop in their career and to go backwards. But Runjeet was too prudent to hold otherwise than in profound respect a power which, in half-a-century, had supplanted that of the Mogul, and become masters of the very empire where, at first, its representatives had craved for leave to carry on trade, and submitted to all manner of contumelies and insults for the purpose of securing it. Moreover, an event occurred in the heart of his camp, which gave the Sikh monarch a very exalted opinion of the qualities of the Company's troops. Mr. Metcalfe was attended in his mission by an escort of Sepoys, two or three companies of a regiment of infantry, and, either by accident or designedly, the soldiers