openly read in Cheapside. In the Star-chamber Cranmer | where, after an exhortation had been read by Dr. Cole, and avowed the writing, and his intention of affixing it to every Cranmer had finished his private devotions, he solemnly church-door in London. The council committed him not addressed the people, openly professing his faith, and at only for treason against the succession of the queen, but length declaring, Now I come to the great thing that for perseverance in disquieting the state.' The queen did troubleth my conscience more than any other thing that I not oppose the committal. ever said or did in my life; and that is the setting abroad of writings contrary to the truth which I thought in my heart, and writ for fear of death, and to save my life, if it might be; and that is all such bills which I have written or signed with mine own hand since my degradation, wherein I have written many things untrue. And forasmuch as my hand offended in writing contrary to my heart, therefore my hand shall first be punished. For if I may come to the fire, it shall be first burned. And as for the pope, I refuse him, as Christ's enemy, and antichrist, with all his false doctrine.' The whole assembly was astonished at this speech they had supposed that he would have confirmed and not retracted his recantation. He was then hurried away to the stake, where he stood motionless, holding up his right hand, and exclaiming, until his utterance was stifled, 'This unworthy hand! Lord Jesus receive my spirit!'

day, was born at London, but in what year is uncertain. I In early life he was placed, through the kindness of Sir Henry Yelverton and Sir Randolph Crew, upon the foundation at the Charterhouse, whence, in March, 1632, he went to Pembroke Hall in Cambridge, and took the degree of B. A. in 1634. He afterwards went to Peterhouse, of which he was a fellow in 1637, and became M. A. in 1638.

In 1634 he published a volume of Latin poems, mostly devotional, in which the celebrated line is found upon the miracle at Cana in Galilee, which has been ascribed to other and greater poets than Crashaw:

Nympha pudica Deum vidit, et erubuit.'

The modest water saw its God, and blushed.'

A second edition of his 'Poemata and Epigrammata' was published at Cambridge, 8vo., 1670.

At what time Crashaw was admitted into holy orders is uncertain. Wood says he took degrees at Oxford in 1641; about which time he seems to have become a popular preacher, full of energy and enthusiasm. His degrees, however, do not appear in the public register. In 1644, when the parliamentary army expelled those members of that university who refused to take the covenant, Crashaw was among the number; and being unable to contemplate with resignation or indifference the ruins of the church establishment, he went over to France, where his sufferings and their peculiar influence on his mind prepared him to embrace the Roman Catholic religion. In 1646 the poet Cowley found Crashaw in France in great distress, and introduced him to the patronage of Charles the First's queen, who gave him letters of recommendation to Italy: there he became secretary to one of the cardinals at Rome, and was made a canon in the church of Loretto, where he died of a fever, soon after his promotion, about the year 1650. His Steps to the Temple, Sacred Poems, with other Delights of the Muses,' was published in 12mo., 1646; a second edition, 1648; and a third, also called second in the title, Svo., 1670. Pope occasionally borrowed thoughts from Crashaw, but improved them. Crashaw resembled Herbert in his turn of mind, but possessed more fancy and genius. (See the new edit. of the Biogr. Britannica; Chalmers's Biogr. Dictionary, vol. x., p. 482-485; Wood, Fasti Oxon., Bliss's edit., vol. iv., p. 4; Ellis's Specimens of the early English Poets, vol. iii., p. 224.) In 1652 a posthumous volume of his Poems was published at Paris, accompanied with vignettes by Messager, entitled 'Carmen Deo nostro, te decet Hymnus-Sacred Poems, collected, corrected, augmented, most humbly presented to my Lady the Countesse of Denbigh, by her most devoted servant R. C., in hearty acknowledgement of his immortall obligation to her goodness and charity,' 8vo. An edition of his English Poems, selected from the two volumes, was published by Peregrine Phillips, 12mo., London, 1785. CRASSATELLA. [CONCHACEA.] CRA'SSINA. [VENERIDE.]

CRASSULA CEAE, a natural order of Polypetalons Exogens, forming by itself the Crassal alliance of the Apocarpous group. It consists of succulent plants, with herbaceous or shrubby, and annual or perennial roots, growing in hot dry exposed places in the more temperate parts of the old world chiefly. On the sun-scorched cliffs and volcanic soil of the Canaries, and on the dry sterile plains of the Cape of Good Hope, they are most abundant. Their flowers are arranged in panicles, spikes, cymes, and corymbs; each has a calyx of several divisions, alternating with which is the like number of petals, alternating with which is the like number of stamens, or twice as many, alternating with which are as many distinct carpels as there are segments of the calyx. The stamens arise from the tube of the calyx; there is usually an hypogynous gland at the base of each carpel; the carpels are often of the same colour as the petals; and sometimes in monstrous cases the anthers bear ovules as well as the ovaries. The fruit consists of a number of distinct follicles, each containing numerous minute seeds; the embryo lies in the axis of fleshy albumen.

CRASSUS, the surname of several Roman families, and especially of the triumvir Marcus Licinius. When he is first mentioned in history, he is spoken of as exceedingly rich; and it was partly owing to this circumstance that he was appointed to take the command against the revolted gladiators of Capua. In a few days he raised an army of six legions, and marched in quest of the enemy. A battle was fought in the south of Italy, near Rhegium, in which Crassus was completely victorious, and Spartacus fell with 40,000 of his men. Crassus was rewarded with an ovation on his return; but instead of the usual myrtle-wreath, he had a laurel crown. (Aul. Gellius, v. 6.) At the time of his expedition against Spartacus, he held the office of prætor; and the following year (A.U.C. 683, 71 B.C.), he was chosen consul with Pompey. The influence which Pompey gained by his popular and engaging manners Crassus succeeded in acquiring by the hospitality and munificence which his immense wealth easily supported. On one occasion he gave a general entertainment to the whole people, and distributed corn enough for three months' provision. No acts of importance, liowever, are recorded by historians during this administration. After some years, Crassus and Pompey dropped that determined violence towards each other, which, though frequently concealed, had never been wholly removed, and joined Cæsar in what Many species of Crassula, Rochea, Sempervivum, Sedum, is called the first triumvirate. While the actual power was &c., are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers; the almost entirely engrossed by Cæsar, he endeavoured to various annual Tillæas, &c., are obscure weeds; house-blind Crassus and Pompey to the real state of things by leeks (different sorts of Sempervivum) are grown for their certain concessions which he made. With this view he refrigerant qualities; and the leaves of Sempervivum arbo- included them both in a commission for dividing the lands reum possess powerful tanning qualities. of Campania, and for settling a colony at Capua, and thus enabled them to provide for some needy adherents to their interests. After a time the alliance was discontinued, but

All the hardy species may be grown on old walls, roofs, rock-work, or other places thoroughly drained of moisture

CRATE'GUS, an extensive genus of hardy trees and bushes, the different species of which are cultivated for the sake of their ornamental appearance, especially when loaded with brightly-coloured fruit. It belongs to the pomeous division of the rosaceous order, and is very nearly allied to the apple, from which it differs in the fruit containing a variable number of stones, as the medlar does; from the medlar it is known by its fruit being closed, not spread open, at the apex.

The species inhabit woods and hedges throughout the northern hemisphere, from Barbary and Palestine to about 60° N. lat. in the east, and from Mexico to a similar latitude in the west. South of these limits they do not occur in a wild state. The flowers appear in the greatest profusion, usually in terminal cymes, in the early months of the year, and are succeeded by small round fruits, coloured yellow, red, purple, or black. Most of them are merely haws, and fit only for the food of birds; a few are larger and more fleshy, but none of them have been found worth cultivating for the fruit, except the azarole (Crataegus Azarolus), which is eaten in Italy, and the aronia, which is sold in the markets of Montpellier under the name of Pommettes à deux closes.

it was renewed again; and in B.C. 56 Pompey and Crassus | book he takes occasion to lament the death of the inter offered themselves as candidates for the consulship, in locutors in the dialogue, Crassus and Antonius. order to keep out Domitius Ahenobarbus, who was violently opposed to Cæsar, and would be likely to thwart his designs. Cæsar had been appointed over the province of Gaul for five years; and Crassus and Pompey, though for some time they concealed their intentions, at last succeeded in gaining the provinces of Syria and Spain for the same period and on the same terms. Pompey did not leave immediately for Spain; but Crassus set out for Syria without delay, even before the year of his consulate was expired, B.C. 55. From the great preparations which he made, both in raising forces and in other ways, and from his known avarice, it was clear that a war with the Parthians was the real object at which he aimed; and the joy which he displayed at the prospect of so vast an increase of his wealth Appian (on the Parthian Wars, § 135) describes as perfectly childish and ridiculous. The tribune Ateius endeavoured to prevent Crassus from going on this expedition, but in vain; and as Crassus was passing through the gates of Rome, the tribune pronounced certain terrible imprecations upon him over a small fire, which had been lighted according to the usual practice in such cases. A person thus devoted, it was believed, could not possibly escape, and the person who so devoted another could not prosper himself, and therefore it was a course not pursued hastily or on light grounds. (Appian, § 137; Cicero de Divinatione, i. 16.) This consideration increased the alarm which the curse produced in the people, and even among the army of Crassus himself. Nevertheless he proceeded, by way of Macedonia and the Hellespont, to Asia. He crossed the Euphrates and ravaged Mesopotamia without resistance. Orodes, the king of Parthia, being at the time engaged in an invasion of Armenia, his general Surena commanded the Parthian forces against the Romans. A battle was fought near Carrhæ between Crassus and Surena, in which Crassus was defeated. The clamours of his soldiers obliged him to accept proposals of peace from Surena, to whom the messengers of the Parthian general promised to lead him. His resistance to their insulting treatment provoked their fury, and they put him to death without delay, B.C. 53. Surena had his head and right hand cut off and sent to Orodes.

We have no proof that Crassus possessed very great talent of any kind, and, but for his wealth, he would probably have been scarcely known. From his father he inherited a large fortune; but the rest of his wealth was not acquired by the most honourable means. He is said to have enriched himself by purchasing at a very low price the estates of those who were proscribed by Sylla; also by letting for hire slaves, whom he had instructed in various arts and trades; and so high was his own standard of opulence, that he said no one could be rich who was not able to maintain an army at his own expense. With all his avarice he was generally ready to lend money to his friends, and was hospitable without extravagance. Cicero (Brut., § 66) represents him as a man of moderate acquirements and slender abilities, but of great industry and perseverance. In another of his works (Tusc. Quæst., v. 40) he says, 'Crassus was somewhat deaf, but a greater misfortune than this was the bad character which people gave him, though in my opinion unjustly.' (Cicero, Epist. ad Atticum, i., 14, 17; iv., 13; Appian, on the Parthian Wars, § 134-155; Dion Cassius, xxxvi. & xxxvii.; Plutarch, Life of Crassus.)

Coin of Crassus.]

British Museum. Actual Size, Silver. 61 grains.

CRASSUS, LUCIUS LICINIUS, was considered the greatest orator of his time. He appears to have superintended the course of Cicero's early education. (De Oratore, ii., 1.) Cicero, in one place (Brut., § 38), pronounces him perfect, and in the treatise before referred to (De Oratore) he delivers his own sentiments on eloquence in the person of Crassus. In the beginning of the third

Between sixty and seventy well-marked species and va rieties are known in the gardens of this country. Into ex tensive collections they are all worth introduction except Cr. parvifolia and those immediately allied to it; and for the ornament of park scenery there is probably no genus of flowering trees at all to be compared with Crataegus for variety, fragrance, and beauty. Our limits prevent our noticing all these at length; we therefore confine ourselves to a brief indication of those which are most valuable for ornamental purposes.

Under the name of Hawthorns we would comprehend all the numerous sorts which are either varieties of Cratægus oxyacantha, or nearly related to it. They have all deeply-lobed rather shining leaves so little hairy that their bright green colour is not deadened, small fragrant flowers, and small shining haws. They are distinguished for the graceful manner in which they generally grow in rich soil and unharmed by the pruning-knife. Thirty feet is not an unusual height for very fine specimens, and when of that size their appearance is exceedingly graceful and picturesque. Cr. oxyacantha itself produces varieties with double flowers, bright crimson flowers, yellow fruit, black fruit, and fruit downy when young; the latter is called Cr. oxyacantha eriocarpa, and is one of the most beautiful of the genus. Besides these we would recommend most particularly to planters the Cr. heterophylla, or Constantinople thorn, which is more erect and rigid in its manner of growth than any of the varieties of Cr. oxyacantha, and grows remarkably fast.

Very nearly allied to these are the Oriental Thorns, species which have their deeply-cut leaves covered so closely with hairs as to have a dull grey or hoary aspect, large fragrant flowers, and large succulent rather angular fruit. These are less graceful in their manner of growth than the true hawthorns, some of them, especially Cr. tanacetifolia and odoratissima having a round formal head; but their flowers are even more fragrant than the May-bush, and their fruit renders them striking objects in the autumn. The azarole is one of them; but it does not fruit or flower readily, and is the least worth having of the group. What we should recommend are Cr. odoratissima, with its red, Cr. tanacetifolia, with its yellow, Cr. orientalis, with its purple, and Cr. Aronia, with its light orange-coloured fruit. The American Thorns are species with leaves but little lobed, usually broad, shining, and toothed unequally, often having exceedingly long spines, and having fruit generally of an intermediate size. They are not quite so handsome as the species of the two former groups; but the following, nevertheless, have sufficiently ornamental features, viz., Cr. crusgalli, or the Cockspur thorn, with very long strong spines and shining deep-green leaves; of this we have a broad-leaved variety called splendens, and a narrow-leaved variety called salicifolia; Cr. prunifolia, ovalifolia, and Douglasii, with dark handsome leaves; Cr. punctata, with large yellow or red haws; Cr. cordata, with brilliant scarlet fruit, and Cr. microcarpa, with very small beautiful vermilion fruit and graceful pendulous shoots.

The Small-leaved Thorns are all North American:

vation.

Finally, the Evergreen Thorns consist of Cr. mexicana and pyracantha. The former is a small tree, with lanceshaped bright green leaves and large round yellow fruit; it is probably too tender for hardy cultivation north of London. The latter, an inhabitant of rocks and wild places in the south of Europe and the Caucasus, has so long been cultivated for the sake of its flame-coloured berries and evergreen leaves as to require no description here.

they form small straggling bushes, and are not worth culti- | and intrusted his son Marcus to his care at Athens. (De Officiis, i. 1.) He taught first in his native place, where he was still residing when Pompey came thither after the battle of Pharsalia; he had an interview with the defeated general, with whom he conversed on providence. (Plutarch, Pomp., c. lxxv.) Afterwards he went to Athens, and Cicero not only got him made a Roman citizen by Julius Cæsar, but even prevailed upon the Areopagus to vote that he should be requested to continue at Athens as an instructor of youth, since he was an ornament to the city. (Plutarch, Cicero, c. xxiv.) Brutus went to Athens to hear Cratippus while engaged in preparations to meet the army of the Triumvirate. (Plutarch, Brutus, c. xxiv.) Cratippus wrote a treatise on divination, in which he allowed that kind which was derived from dreams and the ravings of idiots, but denied all other sorts of divination. (Cicero de Divinat. i. 3 and 32.) In addition to his merits as a philosopher, we are told that he was an amusing companion, and gifted with great powers of conversation. (Cicero ad Familiares, xvi. 21.)

All these plants may be budded or grafted upon the common hawthorn, so that persons whose means do not allow them to purchase the plants may nevertheless ornament their gardens with them by providing hawthorn stocks, upon which they may work them themselves; or a very small garden might exhibit a good many sorts, if each of the groups here pointed out were intermixed upon the same plant; this might be easily effected by a skilful budder. It would not, however, do to intermix the different groups upon the same plant, because the species would not harmonize, and consequently a bad appearance would be the

result.

(See Loudon's Arboretum and Fruticetum Britannicum, part iii., and the Botanical Register, vols. 21 and 22, for more detailed information concerning these plants.)

CRATERUS. [ALEXANDER III.]

CRATES, the name of several Greek writers. I. A comedian of Athens, one of the most eminent of the predecessors of Aristophanes, who speaks very favourably of him. (Eqq. 537.) He is said to have been originally one of Cratinus' actors (Schol. on Aristoph. Eqq.), but he could not have been so very long, since he was well known as a comic writer in 450 B.C. (Euseb. ad Olymp., 82, 2.) Aristotle tells us that he was the first who introduced regular plots into his comedies. (Poet. c. v.) II. A Cynic philosopher, the son of Ascondas of Thebes, who flourished about the year 328 B.C. He was living in 307 B.C., when Demetrius Phalereus retired to Thebes. (Diogen. Laërt. vi. 85; Plutarch, Mor., p. 69, c.) He was a disciple of Diogenes and Bryson, and was surnamed the 'door-opener' (OvpravoirTng), from his habit of entering any house he pleased whether invited or not. (Suidas.) III. A philosopher of the old academy, son of Antigenes, and born in the deme of Thria in Attica. He was a disciple of Polemo, to whom he was much attached, and the instructor of Arcesilaus and Bion the Borysthenite. (Diog. Laërt. iv. 4.) He flourished about the year 287 B.C. (See Clinton's Fasti Hellenici, ii., p. 183.) Cicero says, that his philosophical doctrines did not at all differ from those of Plato. (Academ. i. 9.) IV. A celebrated grammarian and stoic, son of Timocrates, and born at Mallos in Cilicia. He was sent as ambassador to Rome by Attalus, king of Pergamus, about the year 159 B.C. (See Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, iii., p. 89.) His works were very numerous. (See a list of them in Clinton, iii., p. 528, note e.)

CRATI'NUS, the son of Callimedes, a writer of the old comedy, was born at Athens 519 B.C. It is not known when he began to write comedies; it is inferred, however, from the words of Aristophanes (Eqq. 524-530), that he did not appear as a dramatist till somewhat advanced in life. (See Clinton's Fasti Hellenici, vol. ii., p. 49.) He was the most formidable adversary of Aristophanes: two occasions are recorded on which the judges pronounced him only second to that great poet; and in 423 B.C., the first prize was awarded to his comedy called the Wine-Flask,' the Connus' of Ameipsias being placed second, and the 'Clouds' of Aristophanes third. He died the year after. Cratinus was highly esteemed by his countrymen, and at one time, according to his rival Aristophanes, was so much in fashion, that no songs were listened to at banquets except choruses from his comedies. In his old age he was much addicted to drinking; and in his last play he shows how his faithful wife Comedy strove to get divorced from him in consequence of his exceeding love for his fascinating mistress the Wine-Flask. (See the Scholiast on Aristoph. Egq. 401.) Aristophanes frequently alludes to this failing of his contemporary. (See, for instance, the Peace, 701.) The names of forty of his comedies have come down to us. (Fabricius, Bibl. Græca, ii., p. 431.)

CRAWFISH. [ASTACUS. CRUSTACEA.]

CRAYONS (from the French crayon, derived from craie, chalk) are a species of material for drawing, and may be considered as of two kinds, native and artificial. The principal native crayons are black, white, and red. The best black is procured from Italy. It is a species of earth, which is soft in the ground, but hardens on exposure to the air. It is of a bright even tint, and of a smooth and moderately hard texture. Admirably adapted to outlining and shading drawings of any size, it is the artist's best tool for study. It will form a large, bold, and strong line, and is at the same time capable of extreme fineness. The best white is a pure chalk, and is procured in France. It is of a brilliant colour, but very brittle; so that it is difficult to avoid breaking it frequently. There are various modes of correcting its brittleness, such as soaking it in milk, baking it on hot iron, or in the fire; but they all, more or less, injure the brilliancy of its tint. Pipe-clay is sometimes employed as a substitute, as being smoother and less brittle; but it is of a very inferior tint. White chalk is used on tinted paper to touch on or hatch the high lights. It is also much used by the painter to determine or correct his outline. Red chalk is employed in the place of black chalk on white or tinted paper, because it is freer than the best black chalk, and firmer and smoother than the inferior kinds. It is also of a warmer and more agreeable tone of colour; but it is by no means capable of the same degree of fineness in small or highly-finished drawings: it is a clayey ochreous substance. All these three kinds of native crayons are frequently combined in the same drawing, on tinted papers, which are generally of a neutral grey, of a blueish, greenish, or brownish quality.

Artificial crayons are composed of different coloured earths, and other pigments, rolled into solid sticks with some tenacious stuff such as milk, common gin, or beerwort. The best are procured from Switzerland. They are employed in crayon painting upon a ground composed of paper or vellum, stretched upon a canvas, which has been previously extended on a deal frame. It is requisite to paint with cooler tints in crayons than in oils, which is the reason why crayon painters generally fall into such a cold style of colouring when they work in the other material. Great softness and delicacy and great vivacity of tint may be obtained in finished crayon paintings; but depth, richness, and truth of colour, are not attainable, nor solidity in the forms. Moreover, the delicacy proper to the substance is tolerably certain to betray the artist who devotes himself solely to its use into a petty and weak style of drawing. For sketches of portraits, in which the form and expression, and a general idea of the complexion, are all that is required, crayons are a very pleasing and useful material; but they should be employed only occasionally, and as a variety to other modes of study.

The native crayons are the legitimate materials for the artist in the study of drawing, and in tracing the first thoughts of design. Some of the sketches of Raphael, Michael Angelo, the Caracci, and others of the great painters, remain to attest the utility of crayons in forming the style of a painter or sculptor, and their capability of CRATIPPUS, a Peripatetic philosopher, born at Mity-expressing the highest qualities of design. lene. He was a contemporary and friend of Cicero, who An instrument called a portcrayon is employed to hold thought him the first philosopher of the age (De Officiis, a the crayon by. It is a metal tube, split at each end, so as Cratippo nostro, principe hujus memorie philosophorum'), to gape a little to admit the crayon a sliding ring em

braces the tube, and may be made to close the disparted | tribe Ericaceae, which constitute the chief vegetation of bogs sides firmly upon the crayon.