the aperture is more plaited on both sides. The colouring, or at least, the disposition of the colouring here, is a much more certain characteristic of species than either the general outline of form or size, the latter of which is exceedingly various. In this family I have often observed full-grown specimens of C. Arabica from one to three inches long; this peculiarity is attempted to be explained by Lamarck and others, who assert that when the animal has formed a complete shell, as it has not the faculty of enlarging its size, it is obliged to quit its shell and form a new one, in the same manner as the Annulosa cast their skins, and by that means the same animal forms many shells; but I believe there is not the slightest ground for this notion,' Mr. Gray has recently observed, that sometimes, though rarely, the young shells of Cypræa, especially C. Arabica, have the inner edge of the outer lip thickened and furnished with a compressed sharp-edged series of teeth. Geographical Distribution, Habits, &c.-Cypræidæ abound both in the old and new world, but their greatest development both in point of size and number of species takes place in warm climates. A very few species ale inhabitants of the European seas The family are littoral, and are generally found under stones or rolled corals. Genera CYPREA (Cowry). Generic character.-The young shell smooth, the adult with both lips toothed; the anterior and posterior canal distinct, recurved; the front end of the columella lip smooth, edged by a single large oblique fold, separated from the teeth by a deep groove. (Gray.) Sub-genus. 1. Shell with the back warty (rarely smooth), base ridged. The front of the columella broad, deeply impressed; shell tremity; base four-spotted, partly grooved. mostly smooth. a. Shell smooth; columella-pit transversely ridged; teeth of inner lip generally long. (Gray.)* Under this division of the sub-genus Mr. Gray arranges twenty-seven species, including some of the rarest forms,Cypraea Aurora (the Morning Dawn, or Orange Cowry), and Cypraea Princeps, for example,-together with Cypraea Tigris (the Tiger Cowry), and other common species." Example.-Cypraea Mappa, the Map Cowry. Description. Shell more or less ventricose, ovate, varied with deep brown or yellow lines, and spots. Dorsal line laciniated. Margin thick, spotted with black; teeth yellow. Locality, Indian Ocean. b Only two species are enumerated by Mr. Gray, and one of these, C. rugosa, Brod., is fossil. Example.-Cypræca Childreni, Children's Cowry, Gray. [Cypræa Mappa.] a, seen from above; b, seen from below. There are many varieties, among which the rosy variety, the dark variety, from the Pearl Islands; the citron variety; and the dwarf rich-mouthed variety from the Mauritius, are the rarest or most beautiful. The young shell is of a fawn colour with obsolete spots and dashes. B. Shell smooth; columella pit (nearly) smooth; teeth of inner lip short or indistinct. Under this division of the sub-genus Mr. Gray arranges fifteen species. The descriptions are throughout almost entirely Mr. Gray's, as well as the arrangement, Description.-Shell oblong, thin, pellucid, pure rosecoloured, with very thin, distant, continued ribs; lips whitish. Varies with an indistinct dorsal groove. Mr. Gray observes, that Pig is the common name of Front of the columella narrow dilated into a sharp- these shells on the coast, and that they are called Porcelli toothed ridge; shell smooth. in Italy. He adds, that Porcellain, the common name for [Trivia pustulata.] ERATO (Risso). Spire conical; apex sub-mamillary, blunt; shell, when young, smooth; the adult with both lips finely crenulated; the columella concave slightly radiatedly plaited or smooth, with two or three folds in front; the anterior canal straight, the hinder indistinct. Seven species. Example, Erato scabriuscula, Roughish Tear-shell, Gray, Marginella Cypræo'a, Sow. Description.-Shell ovate, turbinate, livid, purplish, minutely tubercular; spire conical; dorsal line impressed; mouth wide, whitish, inner lip largely plaited its whole length; teeth large, young, smooth; lip thin, toothless. Locality, South Pacific, St. Elena. [Erato scabriuscula.] Outer lip slightly inflexed, narrow, keeled externally, with edge shelving inwards; the rest like the former. Seven species. Example, Ovulum pyriforme, Sow., OVULUM (Ovula, Lam., commonly called Poached Eggs). Pear-shaped Poached Egg, Gray. No. 499. [THE PENNY CYCLOPEDIA.] VOL. VIII.-L Description.-Shell pear-shaped, yellowish-white, attenuated in front; front of columella concave; outer lip shelving inwards. Locality, New Holland. [Ovulum pyriforme.] Ε. Outer lip thickened, inflexed, toothless; extremities short front of the columella flattened; hinder part with a fold, obliterated by age. Nine species. Example, Orulum gibbosum, Ovula gibbosa, Lam.; Bulla gibbosa, Linn.; Gibbous Poached Egg, Grav. Description.-Shell oblong, blunt, white; margin yellow, covering nearly the whole shell; back with an angular rib. Varies in length and breadth. Locality, Atlantic Ocean. [Ovulum gibbosum.] 1. Outer lip thickened, inflexed, toothless, extremities rather elongated; the hinder conical, straight; the rest like the former. Four species. Example, Ovulum longirostratum, Sow.; Goodhall's False Spindle, Gray. Shell fusiform, white, thin; beak very long, curved; mouth linear, rather expanded in front. Locality, Adriatic. [Ovulum longirostratum.} η. Outer lip thickened, slightly inflexed, toothless; the front of the columella rounded, the extremities very long. (Volva, De Montf.) One species only, Ovulum Volva, Ovula Volva, Lam.; Bulla volva, Linn., Common Weaver's Shuttle. Description.-Shell oval, flesh-coloured, striated; outer lip pink; the beaks long, flexuous. Locality, China.* Place in the Animal Series. Lamarck places Cypraea between Ovula (Ovulum),-which is immediately preceded by Marginella and Volvaria, -and Terebellum, Ovulum being the first genus of his Enroulées (Involute Trachelipods). Cuvier arranges the genus between Conus and Ovula, (which last is immediately succeeded by Terebellum,) in his third family of pectinibranchiated gastropods or Buccinoidea. De Blainville's position for the Cowries is in his third family, Angyostomata, of his Paracephalophora Dioica, The reader should also consult Mr. G. B. Sowerby's monograph of the genus Ovulum in his Species Cohchyliorum." [Ovulum volva.] between Peribolus (which almost all agree to be a genus established on the young form of Cypraea) and Ovula, Pe ribolus being preceded by Marginella, and Ovula, the last genus of his first order, Siphonobranchiata, being succeeded by Trochus, the first genus of his first family Goniostomata, of his second order of Paracephalophora Dioica, viz., Asi phonobranchiata. Rang, in his Manual, places Cypraa (including Peribolus) between Oliva and Ovula. In Des hayes's Tables, the genus stands between Ovula and Oliva. 66 Mr. Gray (Zool. Journal, vol. i., p. 73) says, 'This family appears to be allied to the subfamily Cassidæ, amongst the Buccinoidea, by means of the Cassis Testiculus, of which Lamarck observes, ce casque a un peu l'aspect de certains Cypræa;" but the affinity is not slight, for in the shape and form of the aperture, which has a groove or canal at each end, both of the lips plaited, and the front part of the columella flattened, it accords with those Cypræa; but the outer lip is not inflected, nor is the back of the shell covered with a china-like coat, but with epidermis, and the canal in front of the aperture is recurved. The Ovula on the opposite side the family, have certainly great affinity to the Bullidea (Bullida), as is pointed out by Linnæus, who places them all in that genus, but Bulla differs most essentially from them; in the animals by the position of their branchia and their being half hermaphrodite, and in the shell by the aperture being rounded and quite entire at each end, and the edges not being thickened, nor the back covered with a shelly coat, for the shell is here covered with the soldered reflected lobes of the mantle; the connexion is most apparent by means of Ovula patula and Bulla Naucum, in the latter of which there are some slight appear ances of a curved canal at each end of the aperture, as in the character of the Cypræidea (Cypræida), but it has not the enamelled back. This family has some analogy in their polished coats, first to the Marginella, which induced Montagu to call a species of that genus, Cypraea Voluta; and, indeed, such is the affinity between the young of this species, which has been called Bulla diaphana, that Dillwyn has considered it as the young of Cypræa Europaa; in which Montagu ap pears also to have coincided, until he observed a totally dif ferent construction in the animal: but I believe that M. persicula is the most analogical species of this genus; and secondly, to the Olive, which differ essentially in having an operculum, and all the characters of the Buccinoidea (Buc cinidae).' These observations were written before a more extended examination enabled Mr. Gray to propose the natural arrangement including the genus Ovulum, which we have given above from his monograph; but we have laid them before the reader because they contain many useful remarks. in Italy and Piedmont; we have seen specimens of a very fine fossil species, nearly resembling C. mus, from the Netherlands: they seem to be confined to the newer formátions. Lamarck enumerates eighteen fossil species of Cypræa, and two of Ovulum. Deshayes, in his Tables, makes the number of living Ovula eighteen, and the number of fossil (tertiary) species six. Three species, O. Speltu, O. birostre, and a new species he makes both fossil (tertiary) and living in the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, and the Mediterranean respectively. The number of living species of Cypræa he makes 138, and the number of fossil (tertiary) 19. He considers Cyprææ lurida (Medit.), rufa (ibid.), Annulus (African Ocean), Coccinella (European Ocean), a new species (Sicily), and another new species, Sphæriculata? Lam., with an unknown habitat, as both living and fossil (tertiary). of the poor, and observed, in his mode of life, the most ascetic severity. It is stated, however, that, from some unexplained circumstance, he afterwards became repossessed of his property. Having held for two years the office of presbyter, to which he was elected on his joining the Christian community, he was importuned by the people to become their bishop, in opposition to several other presbyters who sought the promotion, and he is said to have been shut up in his house by the assembled populace, who barricaded all the outlets to prevent his escape, which in vain he attempted to make at an upper window. He was consequently installed archbishop of Carthage; but the persecution under the Emperor Decius having soon afterwards commenced, Cyprian fled, and so closely concealed himself during about a year and a half, that the place of his retreat appears never to have been known. This flight and long desertion of his flock occasioned much scandal against the church, and caused the clergy of Rome to address those of Cypraea Physis, Brocchi (C. Pyrula, Lam.), Plaisantin or anxiously alleged by the archbishop and his apologist Carthage on the subject. (Cypr. Epis. 2.) The plea Placentin; C. leporina, Lam.; C. gibbosa, Gray; C. tumi Pontius is an especial revelation from God in a vision. dula, König, Bordeaux: and he observes, that C. annularia,(Deus secedere me jussit,' Epis. 9.) That this was a fiction Brogn., appears to be an allied species; C. fragilis, Gray; C. Deshayesii, Gray; Obula tuberculosu, Duclos; C. in flata, Lam., Grignon, allied to Ovulum; C. subrostrata, Gray, Nehove; C. fabagina, Lam.; C. diluviana, Gray; C. rugosa, Brod., Turin. Mr. Gray notes the following as fossil: Cypræa. Luponia. L. elegans, Gray; Cyp. elegans, Defr.; L. dactylosa, Gray; Cyp. dactylosa, Lam.; Cyp. Gervillii, Sow.; Cyp. Georgii, Defr. Trivia. is shown in Epis. 5, where one Tertullus is made responsible for the advice (à Tertullo ratio reddetur'). When the persecution was abated, Cyprian, having suffered only proscription and the confiscation of his property, returned to Carthage, and being reinstated in his bishopric, he held legislate concerning the rebaptizing of heretics, apostates, several councils, at one of which 85 bishops attended to and deserters, who, after escaping the severity of Decius by renouncing their religious profession, desired to be re-adabout six years afterwards, by the Emperor Valerian, Cymitted into the church. On the renewal of the persecution, T. Barcinensis, Gray; Cyp. Barcinensis, König, Barcelona; T. sphæriculata, Cyp. Lam.? Italy; T. acuticos-prian was brought before the proconsul Paternus, with nine tata, Gray, Italy; T. pediculoides, Gray, Italy; T. Porcellus, Gray, Crag? T. Bronnii, Gray, Italy; T. solida, Gray; T. avellana, Sow., M. C., Suffolk Crag, which, Mr. Gray observes, appears to be an allied species; T. Duclosiana, Gray. Erato. E. ventricosa, Gray, Italy. Ovulum. O. Lethesii (Leathesii ?), Sow., M. C. Mr. Gray makes the whole number of species of Cypræide, including the subgenera above indicated, and the fossil as well as the living species, 174. If Cyp. nivosa, Brod., is to be considered as a well-established species distinct from Cyp. Damá, as Mr. G. B. Sowerby (Zool. Journ., vol. iv., p. 220) and others contend, the number will be 175, provided C. Broderipii, Gray, be not also a variety of C. Dama, as Mr. Gray says it perhaps may be. To these are to be added eight living species recorded by Mr. Gaskoin, and one by Mr. Reeve, in the Zoological Proceedings for 1835, as hitherto undescribed; and C. umbilicata, Sow., provided it be not a variety of C. pantherinu, as Mr. Gray states it to be, but which Mr. Sowerby does not allow, considering it an established species more nearly allied to C. pantherina than C. Tigris. M. Duclos has long promised a monograph of this family, out it has not yet appeared. CYPRESS. [CUPRESSUS.] CYPRIA'NUS, ST., THA'SCIUS CECILIUS, one of the most eloquent of the Latin fathers, was archbishop of Carthage towards the middle of the third century. The facts and dates relating to the early portion of his life are stated by different writers with a variation which occasions uncertainty. He was probably born about A.D. 200, at Carthage, where, before his conversion to Christianity, he acquired considerable affluence as a teacher of oratory, then so indispensable to success in all public affairs, from the ignorance of the great mass of the people, and the consequent facility and necessity of operating upon them by rhetorical artifice and arguments addressed to the passions--expedients which Cyprian, in the exercise of his episcopal office, appears to have duly appreciated, if we may judge by the florid style of his declamations, and his frequent recourse to the authority of celestial visions and miraculous events. His career as a Christian appears not to have exceeded ten or twelve years; for it was not until about the fiftieth year of his age that he was gained over to the church of Carthage by Cæcilius, a presbyter, whose name he henceforth adopted. On his conversion, he sold his mansion and estate for the benefit | bishops of Numidia, who were condemned as profane disturbers of the peace, and sent to work in the mines. Cyprian was banished to Curubis, about 40 miles from Carthage. By Galerius, the successor of Paternus, he was restored to his former dignities; but on his refusal to sacrifice to the pagan deities in obedience to the emperor's commands, he was seized by a band of soldiers, and was sentenced to be beheaded as an enemy to the gods, and a dansular palace of Sextus to an adjoining field surrounded with gerous seducer of the people. He was led from the procontrees, which were filled with thousands of spectators, in the midst of whom he submitted with much fortitude to his sentence. That the populace must have experienced a great reversion of sentiment towards their archbishop since they constrained his acceptance of office, is evident from this acquiescence in his death, and from the fact that, previous to should be thrown to the lions. This change arose appathis event, they loudly demanded in the theatres that he rently from the harsh and ascetic austerity of Cyprian in denouncing not only idolatry and licentiousness, but the reasonable and natural gratification of the passions. Óf the much curious and important information concerning the His writings are numerous and valuable, as containing sist of two kinds, epistles, and tracts or sermons. doctrines and discipline of the primitive church: they conformer there are 83, many of which appear to have been The following few notices will show the kind of subjects to written during the eighteen months of his concealment. which these epistles relate. In the one to Donatus he relates, with much rhetorical embellishment, the circummonastic seclusion and abstinence. In that to his priests stances of his own conversion, and shows the advantages of and deacons he gives advice about escaping from persecution. The one to Cornelius contains passages of much importance to the apologists of the church of Rome, in which are mentioned, Petri cathedra atque ecclesia principalis unde unitas sacerdotalis exorta est.' The epistle to Fides contains the judgment of Cyprian and a council of bishops in favour of infant baptism. Another to Magnus on the same subject asserts that sprinkling is no less efficacious than dipping. One to Pomponius reproves the licentious abuses of monachism, and the prevalent custom of virgins living with the clergy, ostensibly for pious instruction, but really for indulgence in fornication. to Cæcilius is important as insisting upon the absolute inAn epistle dispensableness of mixing water with the eucharistic wine. In some antient MSS. three epistles are given besides the above-mentioned number, one of which, from Pope Cornelius to St. Cyprian, is replete with abuse and insolence., |