from the faith. Thus Paul writes to the Galatians: "There be some that trouble you, and would pervert the gospel of Christ. But though we, or an angel from heaven, preach any other gospel unto you than that which we have preached unto you, let him be accursed." At a comparatively early period, however, the simplicity and purity of the religion of the cross were, to some extent, corrupted by the spirit of the vain and deceitful Gentile philosophies, and by the influence of the gorgeous and seductive ritual of paganism. When early in the fourth century Christianity was established as the religion of the Roman empire, and in the middle of the fifth, Pope Leo the Great began to aggrandize the Roman see, the way was opened for the full exercise, on the part of the priesthood, of worldly ambition and spiritual pride and arrogance. From these and other causes the doctrines and precepts of our holy religion were, in the course of the succeeding ages, overlaid, and encumbered with error, superstition, and idolatry; so that it was impossible for those who did not possess the Scriptures (and till the time of Wickliffe they comprised almost the entirety of the laity and the great mass of the clergy) to discover what Christ desired them to believe. In fact, nothing could exceed the corruption of the Romish church at the commencement of the sixteenth century. A Benedictine monk, writing a few years before, remarks "that the law had departed from the priests, judgment from the rulers, and counsel from the elders, good faith from the people, reverence of superiors from the children, loyal affection from subjects, religion from the prelates, devotion from the monks, modesty from the nuns, discipline from the young, and learning from the clergy.”*

It was at this time of almost universal religious degeneracy that God raised up a mighty agent, who under his guidance was to shake to its centre the power of Rome, and lead men to see that there was a simple way, by walking in which they might be saved. Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, in Saxony, on the 10th

Barth's "Church History," 108-9,

of November, 1483. Though born of poor parents, he received a learned education, and in his youth gave promise of great ability and undaunted vigour. When about twenty-two years old, he became an Augustinian monk, and, to use his own words, was "a most mad papist;" but having found a Bible in the monastery he studied it diligently, and was led by the gracious operation of the Holy Spirit to exercise faith in Christ. In 1508, such was his reputation as a scholar that he was made professor of philosophy in the new university of Wittemberg. Two years later he visited Rome, and was shocked to find that the Italian priesthood were both irreligious and corrupt; but it was not till 1517 that he offered any open opposition to the pope or his agents. In that year Tetzel, a Dominican monk, began to put up for sale in Germany letters of papal indulgence—that is, printed or written guarantees that the sins of the purchasers would be remitted. Indulgences were invented as early as the eleventh century, but the enormity of the practice did not be→ come flagrant till the present period, when money was urgently required by the pope to complete the church of St. Peter at Rome; or, as some say, to replenish his treasury. These indulgences were sold in the gross by Tetzel and his associates to the highest bidders, who publicly hawked their spiritual wares, and persuaded the deluded multitudes that they might by buying the indulgences secure eternal happiness either for themselves or their deceased friends, at an easy cost. The words of Tetzel's form of absolution are: 66 May our Lord Jesus Christ have mercy on thee, and absolve thee by the merits of his most holy passion. And I, by his authority, that of his blessed apostles Peter and Paul, and of the most holy pope, granted and committed to me in these parts, do absolve thee, first from all ecclesiastical censures, in whatever manner they have been incurred, and then from all thy sins, transgressions, and excesses, how enormous so ever they may be, even from such as are reserved for the cognizance of the holy see; and as far as the keys of the holy church extend, I remit to you all punishment which

together with Sir John Gates and Sir Thomas Palmer, were beheaded (Aug., 1553).

The parliament abolished the new treasons and felonies created in the last two reigns, and gratified the queen by declaring that she had been born “in a most just and lawful matrimony." They also annulled the acts bearing on religion, passed in Edward's reign, and re-established the mode of Divine service which had been in use in the last year of Henry VIII. A parliament which assembled in 1554, sanctioned the punishment of heretics, and agreed to a reconciliation with Rome; but they resolutely resisted any arrangement which would necessitáte the restoration of the abbey lands (in the possession of private proprietors) to the church.

and In November, 1553, Cranmer, Lord Guildford Dudley, Lady Jane Grey, were condemned for treason, but were sent back to prison without sentence. Early in the following year, Sir Thomas Wyat, Sir Peter Carew, and the Duke of Suffolk took up arms to prevent the marriage contemplated between Mary and Philip; and the Kentish insurgents, under Wyat, were at first successful; but the rising was suppressed in the course of a few days, and Wyat and some of his brother conspirators were executed. Lady Jane Grey and her husband, though they took no part in the rebellion, were immediately beheaded (Feb.). The Princess Elizabeth, who perhaps was cognizant of the intentions of the confederates, was placed in the Tower, and there is little doubt that Mary was anxious to have her beheaded for treason; but the government failed in obtaining evidence against her, and after a time she was committed to the charge of Sir Henry Bedingfield.

Not long after Mary's marriage, Cardinal Pole came to England, and exerted much influence in the royal councils; but it is generally believed that Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester and chancellor, was the principal adviser of the persecutions which disgraced this reign.

In February, 1555, Rogers, a prebendary of St. Paul's, was

burned in Smithfield, and Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, in his own cathedral city, for heresy; and towards the close of the year, Ridley, Bishop of London, and Latimer, Bishop of Worcester, were burned at Oxford. "Be of good comfort, Master

Ridley," said his fellow-martyr, "and play the man; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as shall never be put out." Cranmer was unhappily induced by an expectation of pardon to sign a recantation of his Protestant opinions, but he was nevertheless ordered to be burned. On coming to the stake he withdrew his recantation and declared his firm adhesion to Protestantism. To show his remorse for his late conduct, he thrust his right hand into the flame, exclaiming, "This hand hath offended" (March 21, 1556). The day following his death, Cardinal Pole was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury.

Philip, who had long been absent from the queen, came over to England in March, 1557, and persuaded her to declare war against France. Her troops aided the Spaniards in winning the battle of ST. QUENTIN (Aug. 10); but she paid dearly for taking part in the same, as the French, observing the neglected condition of Calais, unexpectedly besieged, and without difficulty captured it (Jan., 1558).

During the Marian persecution about 270 Protestants were burned, not to mention those who died in prison. Among those burned were five bishops, twenty-one clergymen, fifty-five women, two boys, and two infants.

Trinity College, Oxford, was founded in this reign by Sir Thomas Pope, and St. John's by Sir Thomas White. A company was formed for carrying on trade with Russia, and the woollen cloths and coarse linens of England were exchanged at a great profit, for the valuable skins and furs of the northern regions. The first general law relative to highways was made in this reign, it being enacted that they must be repaired by a parish duty all over England. Coaches first began to be used in this country about the same time.

Death. The neglect of her husband, the hatred of many of her subjects, and the unfortunate course of the war, greatly depressed her spirits, and accelerated the progress of a malady to which she had been for some time subject, and to which she succumbed, Nov. 17, 1558.

ELIZABETH.`

Reigned from 1558 to 1603.

Birth.-Elizabeth was born at Greenwich, Sept. 7, 1533. Descent. She was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. She died unmarried.

Important Events.—At the time of her sister's death, Elizabeth was residing at Hatfield, under mild surveillance, and after a few days she went to London, where the people vied with each other in testifying their affection.

From the first she was determined to restore the Protestant faith, but she proceeded with wary steps, and was skilfully guided by Sir William Cecil, her leading adviser. She was declared by parliament the only supreme governor of the realm both in spiritual and temporal matters, and she was far too able and imperious to allow such a title to be merely nominal. All the bishops, except Kitchen, of Llandaff, refused to take the oath of supremacy, and were therefore removed from their sees, and many dignitaries of the church were deprived on the same ground, but nearly all the parish clergy conformed to the new regulations. Dr. Matthew Parker, formerly chaplain to Anne Boleyn, was made Archbishop of Canterbury, and earnest reformers were appointed to most of the other bishoprics.*

In 1559 Elizabeth concluded a peace with France, but not long after she became involved both with that country and

* The form of government in the Established Church of England is Protestant Episcopacy. Episcopalians hold that bishops are superior to presbyters; and some consider that the government of the church is entrusted to the former by Divine right.