thirteenth century, when the Nichiren and Shin sects were founded. Its impress is deep upon the literary masterpieces of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

The third period began with the establishment of peace under Tokugawa Ieyasu and continued until the period of Meiji in which we live. It is the period of the Chinese philosophy as interpreted by the great scholars of the So (Sung) dynasty in China.

These periods intermingle and overlap. Repeated instances of Chinese influence are detected even in the earliest remains of pure Japanese literature; in the second period the influence of the earlier remained and the force of the Confucian teaching was strongly felt. And in the third period not only did the influences of the three intermingle, but they came to philosophical and religious self-consciousness and conflict.

The Confucian ethics came to Japan early in the Christian era, just how early is uncertain. The wide influence of Chinese thought and civilization date from the introduction of Buddhism; but the distinctive triumph of the Chinese philosophy was in the seventeenth century of our era. In Japan as in China the prevalent philosophy must be distinguished from the traditional and dogmatic ethics.

PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS.

This distinction often has been overlooked and the philosophy has been identified with the teachings of the Sages. Then, as a second step, these teachings are described as "an attempt to isolate the purely human side of morals," finding its sole origin"in the conviction that human moral life has its basis and its safeguards in human nature.' The words of Confucius and Mencius be 66 appear to a set of moral truths-some would

3 James Troup's translations of the Shin teaching, Vols. XIV' XVII of these Transactions.

4" The International Journal of Ethics," Vol. 1, No. 3, p. 307.

say truisms-of a very narrow scope and of dry

ceremonial observances, political rather than personal."5 However true this characterization of the early Chinese teachings may be, one dissents when it is set forth, finally, as "the creed of educated Chinamen "; nor, so far as my limited study goes, can I find that it has satisfied "the FarEasterns of China, Korea and Japan."

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4

It is not necessary to linger over the efforts to prove the original monotheism of the Chinese nor to recount the religious elements in the teaching of Confucius." After his death there was a rapid degeneracy," for his "set of moral rules" left an open door for other doctrine. In the time of Mencius scholars openly ridiculed the "Master," and in spite of Mencius's opposition Taoism gained in strength. Later on for centuries Taoism had "the field pretty much to itself;" until at a subsequent date this mystical system received "Buddhism with open arms."8

As early as 65 A. D. the Imperial sanction was given to the Indian religion, and thenceforth for centuries men were zealous for both Confucius and Buddha. So in the time of the Eastern Tsin "Buddhism was the chief religion, and the doctrines of Confucius were much esteemed;"' 10 and

566 Things Japanese," 2nd Edition, p. 92.

6 See The Religions of China," Lecture I; and Faber's "A Systematical Digest of the Doctrines of Confucius,” pp. 44–53. 7"The Religions of China," p. 180.

8The China Review" Vol. VIII, No. 1, p. 59.

9 Dr. Edkins ("The Phoenix" Vol. III, pp. 47-49) divides the intellectual development of China into five stages;-1, Struggles for Confucianism against various speculations, with Taoist doctrine gaining yearly; 2, The Han", when the tone of speculation was predominantly Taoist; 3, The six dynasties, when Buddhism was triumphant; 4, The Tang," luxurious and poetical; 5, The , Sung," and on to our day. In none of these periods was purely human side of morals" the "creed of educated Chinamen.” Some addition was always needed to satisfy their intellectual and religious natures.

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10 The Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, p. 165.

"the

again we read of the emperor Wuti of the Liang in the sixth century: "Wuti did much to restore literature and the study of Confucius; . . . In his latter days he was so great a devotee of Buddhism that he retired to a monastery like Charles V."" This harmony continued with little to disturb it until the time of the Sō (Sung).

It was during this period of Buddhist supremacy that the Chinese literature was brought to Japan, and here too it was honoured but made no effort to disentangle itself from its ally; the Buddhist religion, and not the Confucian ethics, bring characteristic of the period.

When, however, under Tokugawa rule, Chinese thought a second time made conquest of Japan, it was no longer friendly to Buddhism. While Japan had slept its long sleep of centuries (from the twelfth to the seventeenth) China had been awake. At last Confucianism had taken on the form of a developed philosophy and with its new self-consciousness had attacked and routed its quondam friend. This new philosophy has satisfied the intellect of China and introduced into Japan won its way here also at once. The ages of Buddhistic faith came to a close and the intellect of Japan accepted in the place of the Indian religion the pantheistic philosophy of Shushi (Chu Hi).12

The luxury and poetry of the Tō (Tang) were followed by the struggles of the So (Sung, A. D. 970-1127, or including the "Southern Sung" until 1277). During the reigns of Chin-tsung and of his son Tin-tsung "a violent controversy arose among the literati and officials as to the best mode of conducting the government. Some of them, as Sz'ma Kwang the historian, contended for the maintenance of the old principles of the sages. Others, of whom Wang Ngan-shi was the distinguished leader, advocated reform

11 The Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, p. 166.

12 The Chinese philosophy is sometimes called "agnostic," so "a friendly German critic" in “ Things Japanese," p. 94, and that too was once my opinion, "Osaka Conference," p. 115. It is not agnostic, but pantheistic, as will abundantly appear.

and change to the entire overthrow of existing institutions. For the first time in the history of China two political parties peacefully struggled for supremacy, each content to depend on argument and truth for victory. The contest soon grew too bitter, however, and the accession of a new monarch, Shin-tsung, enabled Wang to dispossess his opponents and to manage state affairs as he pleased. After a trial of eight or ten years the voice of the nation restored the conservatives to power, and the radicals were banished beyond the frontier. A discussion like this, involving all the cherished ideas of the Chinese, brought out deep and acute inquiry into the nature and uses of things generally, and the writers of this dynasty, at the head of whom was Chu Hi, made a lasting impression on the national mind." 13

THE PHILOSOPHERS OF THE SŌ.

The best known of the "orthodox " philosophers of the Sō are Chow Tun-i, (A. D. 1017-1073), the brothers Ch'eng (A. D. 1032-1085, and 1033-1107), and above all Chu Hi. Of the younger Ch'eng it is said," His criticisms on the classics opened a new era in Chinese philosophy and were reverently adopted by his great successor Chu Hi." 14 The names of Ch'eng and Chu are associated together, and the dominant philosophy is called the system of Tei-Shu (Japanese pronunciation).

These philosophers may be compared to the schoolmen of Europe. They were no longer satisfied with the earlier unsystematic exposition of the Confucian ethics, but called metaphysics to their aid and transformed the groups of aphorisms and precepts into an ontological philosophy. As the schoolmen mingled with the teachings of the prophets and apostles elements drawn from Grecian and Eastern philosophy, so did these Chinese schoolmen mingle elements drawn from Buddhism and Taoism in their system based ostensibly on the classics. Their indebtedness to these two 13 The Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, p. 174.

religions was none the less real because of their vehement rejection of both as heretical. And as the teachings of the schoolmen ruled European thought for centuries and were the medium through which the words of Christ were studied, so were the teachings of the Tei-Shu school supreme in the East and the medium through which China and Japan studied and accepted the words of the Sages. To disregard their philosophy and suppose that the earlier and simpler teaching has remained supreme, is as if we should disregard the whole historical development of theology and state that the synoptic gospels have contented Europe for eighteen hundred years.

Shushi was born in the year 1130 and died in the year 1200. He was historian and statesman as well as commentator and philosopher. Educated in Buddhism and Taoism, he rejected both and completed the system of Ch'eng. He was repeatedly employed by the emperor in posts of high importance, but finally died in retirement. His system has remained the standard in China and no deviation from his teaching has been permitted in the examinations. His commentary is the orthodox exposition and his philosophy the accepted metaphysic.15 "The Sect of the Learned" designates his followers.

15 Shushi's name is variously written by writers in China, Chuhsi, Choo He, Chu He, Chu Hi and Ku Hsi. Dr. Legge has used much of Shushi's commentary in connection with his various translations. Accounts of his life are given by Mayer, p. 25; Meadows, The Chinese, Chap. XVIII; in the Chinese Repository, Vol. XVIII, p. 206 f. A section of his writings has been translated by Medhurst, Chinese Repository, Vol. XIII, pp. 552, 609 ff. Also by Canon McClatchie," Chinese Cosmogony," being "Section Forty-Nine of the Complete Works," with criticisms and defence in The China Review, Vol. III, p. 342 f., Vol. IV, pp. 84, 342 ff. "The Middle Kingdom" has various references to Shushi (Chu Hi), the most extended being Vol. I, pp. 682-685. An interesting account of some points in his philosophy is given by W. A. P. Martin, D. D.,—“ The Cartesian Philosophy before Descartes, (Extract from the Journal of the Peking Oriental Society)." See also Faber's "Doctrines of Confucius," pp. 32-33. Rev. Griffith John, Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 37-44., The, Ethics of the Chinese."