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is the easiest and the most interesting should of look around upon the landscape, and tell me if they course be adopted. All intricate and abstruse defi-perceive any thing in motion, or shifting its position nitions and discussions ought to be avoided, and no- from one place to another; (for motion, either menthing attempted but what is level to their compre-tal or corporeal, is implied in every action.) Should hensions, and which may be illustrated and explain- they hesitate in answering this request, an instance ed by sensible images and representations. In en- or two may be pointed out; but they will seldom be deavoring to impart a a general idea of the elements at a loss, and will at once reply-"Ships are movof grammar, I would, in the first instance, lead the ing-birds are flying-the horse is trotting-men pupils to a position where they would have a dis- are walking-the mason is breaking stones-the tinct view of an extensive landscape, where they trees are waving-the laborer is digging the earth." might see either ships sailing, birds flying, wind- They may also be told to stretch out their hands, to mills in motion, men digging the ground, or work- walk a few steps, to strike the ground with a rod, ing with saws and hammers, carriages moving, or to look up to the sky, or to perform any other action reapers cutting down the corn. I would then in- that may be judged expedient, and then informed, form them (if they are acquainted with numbers,) that the words expressive of such actions, as walkthat there are about fifty thousand words in the ing, striking, breaking, flying, &c. are denominated English language, but that they may be reduc- verbs. Having engaged them several times in such ed to about eight different classes* or kinds; or, in exercises, till a clear idea of the nature of a verb is other words, that all the words they see in the differ- communicated, it will be easy to explain the different books that come into their hands, however nu-ence between active and neuter verbs, and the three merous they may appear, may be arranged into tenses, the past, the present, and the future. They these classes. I would next tell them that one of may be told, for example, that masons broke stones these kinds of words is called nouns, or terms which yesterday, and will break stones to-morrow-that express the names of all kinds of objects, and de- James wrote a letter to his cousin a few days ago, and sire them to point out, in the landscape before them, will probably write another in a few days hence-and some of those objects designated nouns. They that birds flew through the air last year, and will fly would find no difficulty in complying with such a in the same manner in the year to come. The requisition, and instantly, "a house, a tree, a ship, quality of an action, and the manner in which it a church, a flower, a man, a horse," and similar may be performed, or any circumstance that happens names, would be cheerfully vociferated. They to be connected with it, may also be explained and would next be told that certain qualities or proper- illustrated. Thus, they may be asked, In what manties belong to every object; that a house may be high ner the clouds move, and the birds fly-slowly or or low, large, or small, white, grey, or red-a tree, swiftly? In what manner the laborer performs his tall, thick, or slender-that a feather is light-gold, work-slovenly or neatly, cheerfully or heavily? In heavy-butter, soft, &c.; and that the words, high, what manner the river runs-smoothly or rapidly? low, light, heavy, soft, &c. belong to that class How James behaves during the time of instruction termed adjectives, or words expressive of qualities. Some particular objects might then be mentioned, and the pupils requested to point out some of the qualities which they may possess. For example, Boy. After two or three qualities that a boy may possess are stated, they would soon apply the adjectives, good, bad, lazy, diligent, tall, handsome, mischievous, beautiful, and other qualities. A Table, -round, oval, square, oblong, high, low, long, short, &c., adding the word table to each of these qualities. To diversify this exercise a little, a quality might be mentioned, and the pupils desired to nanie any objects to which it will apply. For instance, the quality Round,-when such answers as the following might be given, "A hat is round, a wafer is round, a saucer is round, a shilling is round, the sun and moon are round." In like manner, High, which applies to towers, mountains, trees, the clouds; and Soft, which applies to butter, dough, jelly, slime, pudding, snow, &c.

I would next direct their attention to that class of words which express actions, and request them to

attentively or foolishly? How the house to which I point is situated--pleasantly, awkwardly or disagreeably? They may then be told, that such terms as slowly, swiftly, smoothly, pleasantly, &c. which express certain qualities of actions, constitute another class of words, denominated adverbs.

Words which express the relations in which objects stand to each other, may be next pointed out. They may be directed to observe that a certain house (pointing to it) stands near a tower, a river, or a large tree-that a house on the right hand is distant from another on the left-that the clouds are placed above the earth-that the grass is under our feet, and that a certain mansion is situated upon the declivity of a hill. Such relations might also be il lustrated by desiring one of the pupils to walk to a certain point, suppose a tree, and then to return from that point to his former position ;-or, to place himself in a position before the rest of the pupils, and afterwards in a position behind them-when the relative positions of objects denoted by the terms near, above, to, and from, before, and behind, may be familiarly explained, and designated by the word *The words in the English language have gene- prepositions. An idea may be given of another class rally been arranged into nine classes, or "parts of of words, which stand instead of names, by asking speech;" but it appears almost unnecessary to con- such questions as these :-How does that house look sider the article and the interjection as distinct parts among the trees, on the opposite bank of the river? of speech, particularly the interjection, which is not The answer might be, It looks beautifully." How necessary to the construction of a sentence, being does that lady walk? She walks gracefully. What only thrown in to express the emotion of the speak- kind of a scholar is John? He is a good scholar.er. It is proper, however, that the nature and use What did two wicked boys do to Arthur a few days of these words be explained to the young. Perhaps ago? They struck him with their fists. By such all the words essential to language might be arrang- examples, it will be easy to show that the words it, ed into the four following classes: Nouns, Attribu- she, he, stand in the place of house, lady, and John; tives, (or adjectives,) Affirmatives and Connectives. that they and their refer to the wicked boys, and that Such arrangements, however, are of little import-him stands instead of Arthur. They may be then ance, provided we convey a clear idea to those whom we instruct of the leading parts of speech which are essential to language, and be careful not to perplex their attention with too minute or unnecessary di

visions.

informed, that such words are distinguished by the name pronouns; and by a few more familiar instruc tions, they may be made acquainted with the nature and use of the nominative, possessive, and objective cases, both singular and plural, by which they are

varied. In a similar way the nature and use of the article and of conjunctions may be pointed out and illustrated.

would require a class of words distinct from the former. These classes comprehend all the words which can be deemed essential to language, or to a mutual interchange of sentiments between rational beings. In the progress of the formation of language, however, other words would be found highly expedient, for the purpose of ease or ornament, for connecting the different parts of a discourse, or to avoid circumlocutions or disagreeable repetitions; and hence the invention of pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions. If this appears to have been the process by which language was originally formed, it likewise suggests the proper mode by which a general knowledge of the object, use, and component parts of language may be communicated to the young.

The plan now described may be varied, by directing the attention of the young to the objects contained in a parlor or a schoolroom-or a large engraved landscape, accurately colored, containing a considerable variety of objects, and representing various artificers at work, and objects in motion, might be placed before them, and used for the same purpose as a real landscape-or, they may be desired to form an imaginary picture, every one being called upon to specify the objects they wish to be put into the picture, along with their qualities, and the actions and movements they wish to have exhibited. This picture may either be merely imaginary, or it may be rudely sketched with a pencil on a With regard to Syntax, in many of our initiatory sheet of paper. One may desire that an elegant grammars, there are between thirty and forty synmansion may be placed in it; another, a church tactical rules, many of them long and complex, and with a spire, and near it a small cottage; another accompanied with numerous explanations, distincmay wish to see exhibited, a smith hammering his tions, and exceptions, all of which are intended to iron, or a few persons fishing in a river; and ano- be crammed verbatim into the memory of the gramther, a school and play-ground, a cotton-manufacto-matical tyro, whether he understand them or not, ry, or a steam-vessel sweeping along the river. The and however ungracious and irksome the task asexhibitions at a market, or fair, a public procession, signed him. Is such a task necessary to be imposed, boys and girls at play, a festive entertainment, with in the first instance? and, if imposed, will it tend all its accompaniments, the scenes of a sea-port, or to inspire the pupil with a greater relish for gramany other scene connected with nature or human matical studies, or render him more accurate in the society, might be conceived or delineated for this art of composition? I have no hesitation in anpurpose, and grammatical exercises connected with swering such questions in the negative. Although it in the manner now illustrated. I should, how- all the rules alluded to were admitted to be useful, ever, prefer a real landscape, as it appears on a fine it would be highly inexpedient to burden and perday of summer or autumn, to any other exhibition; plex a young person with such exercises, when comas real objects make a more lively impression on the municating the first elements of grammatical armind than any picture can produce, and the view rangement, especially when he cannot be supposed of a beautiful landscape, in the open air, is attend- to have a clear conception of the meaning and aped with the idea of liberty, freedom from formal plication of the greater part of such rules. What tasks, and various exhilarating circumstances. And idea, for example, can a child of six or seven years it ought never to be forgotten, that, by connecting have of such a sentence as the following, which the process of education with varied and pleasant forms only the one-fourth part of the 30th rule of associations, we gradually enlarge the sphere of syntax, in Blair's Grammar-" The same adjec juvenile knowledge, and impress more deeply on the tives, adverbs, and prepositions, are always underyouthful mind the instructions we intended to impart. stood to apply to their respective parts of speech, By a few occasional lessons, in the way of amuse- when connected by conjunctions; so that, if either ment, on the plan now stated, which may be varied of them be changed in the next clause of the senin every possible mode, more correct ideas of the tence, or the mood or tense of the verb be changed, parts of speech may be communicated, than what is the nominative or its pronoun must be repeated," generally done in a year or two by the dry and ab- or of the following, which forms another part of stract modes in which this branch of instruction has the same rule-" All the parts of a sentence should usually been conducted. correspond with each other, and a regular and simiSuch a plan of instruction appears to be suggest-lar construction be carefully preserved throughout; ed by the mode in which we may conceive language to have been originally formed. Were we to suppose man just now created, and placed for the first time on the surface of this globe, his attention would, in the first place, be directed to the various objects which he beheld existing around him. These he would endeavor, by some means, to distinguish one from another; and, if it were his design to invent a language by which he might hold a communication with other rational beings, his first effort would undoubtedly be, to give them names by which the ideas of them might be at any time recalled, when the objects themselves were absent from his view. These form a copious source of words, which must be common to every language formed for the communication of thought among intelligent beings, wherever existing, throughout the immensity of the universe. He would likewise soon discover that every one of the objects around him was endowed with certain attributes or qualities, to express which another class of words or signs would be requisite. In the course of his further survey, he would perceive certain changes, motions, and events, such as the ebbing and flowing of the sea, the rising and setting of the sun, the flight of birds, the movements of quadrupeds, &c. the expression of which

and this corresponding analogy in the construction of sentences constitutes the principal charm of elegant composition."*

I am fully convinced that, in the first instance, it is quite unnecessary to advert to more than three or four fundamental rules in syntax, in order to direct the young in the general construction of sentences.

* Mr. Blair, in his Preface to the Grammar alluded to, says, “A grammar for the use of schools should not contain any thing superfluous," and "every thing should be expressed in the smallest number of words,"-which are certainly good maxims, and yet some of his syntactical rules occupy nearly a page. He immediately adds, "Whatever it is desirable young people should know they must learn by rote-the memory is the only faculty of children of which teachers can properly avail themselves, and it is a vain attempt to address their immature powers of reason and reflection." Such sentiments are rather too antiquated for the nineteenth century. This gentleman, whether his name be real or fictitious, has succeeded much better in the execution of his "Class-Book," and his "Grammar of Natural Philosophy," than in his "Practical Grammar of the English Language."

64

SECTION VI.-Geography.

There is one principal rule, which, if punctually possible, since it will never again be the language observed, would prevent any egregious blunder of literature or science. from being committed either in speaking or writing -and that is, “A verb should agree with its nominative in number and person." This might be called, with some propriety, the Rule of syntax-a rule which is short and simple, which can be easily explained and comprehended, on the observation of which the meaning of a sentence frequently depends, and a rule, in short, which is most frequently violated, even by good writers, especially when their sentences are long and complex. To this rule I would add the following-" Active verbs and prepositions govern the objective case of pronouns ;" and, in order to prevent such inaccurate expressions as more better," "more dearer," &c. the rule, "Double comparatives and superlatives are improper," may be added. Exercises might also be given to illustrate the two following rules-" The past participle should be used after the verbs have and be;" and "The verb to be, should have the same case after it as before it." It ought never to be forgotten, that the habit of accurate composition depends more on practice, and the study of good writers, than on a multitude of rules; and I appeal to every one who is in the habit of composing, whether, in the moment of committing his thoughts to writing, he ever thinks of the rules of syntax, except, perhaps, some of those now specified. I have known an individual, in the lower walks of life, who had never been taught grammar, nor perused any book on the subject-who wrote essays on physical subjects, which might have been inserted with propriety (and some of them were actually inserted) in respectable scientific Journals. The only inaccuracy which appeared was an occasional violation of the first rule of syntax above stated. A more correct idea of the construction of sentences will be conveyed to the young by the occasional remarks of a judicious teacher, during their reading lessons-by exercising them frequently on the rules above stated, particularly the first-in causing them to correct ungrammatical sentences-and by pointing out the inaccuracies which occur in their written compositions, -than by all the formal rules that can be packed into their memories.

All the instructions alluded to above may be imparted without the assistance of any book or manual of grammar, and that, too, almost in the way of amusement. When the pupil has arrived at the age of 13 or 14 years, such books as "Murray's English Grammar," and "Irvine's Elements of English Composition," may be put into his hands for private perusal, where he will meet with a number of minute remarks and observations on the subject, which may be worthy of his attention. But, at the same time, he may be given to understand, that the careful study of good authors, a clear conception of the subject to which his attention is directed, and the exercise of judgment, taste, and common sense, on every piece of composition, will be of more avail than any system of abstract rules; and that a breach of some of the rules laid down by grammarians may sometimes be as proper as a strict observance of them. In short, in training children to accuracy, both in grammar and orthoepy, it might have a good effect were care uniformly taken, both in the school and the parlor, to correct every expression in their ordinary conversation that is ungrammatical, or incorrect in their pronunciation to explain the reasons of the corrections, and to endeavor, on all occasions, to induce them to express their thoughts with propriety and precision. In the schools in Scotland every child should be taught to pronounce the English language with accuracy, even in his common conversation, so that the Scottish language may be extirpated as soon as

Geography is a branch of knowledge with which every individual of the human race ought to be, in some measure, acquainted. It is scarcely consistent with the character of a rational being, surrounded by the immensity of the works of God, to feel no desire to become acquainted with these works, and, particularly, to remain in ignorance of the form, magnitude, component parts, and general arrangements of the terrestrial habitation allotted for his abode. It is equally inconsistent with a principle of benevolence, and with the relations in which he stands to beings of the same nature and destination, to remain altogether unacquainted with the physical and moral condition of other tribes of his fellow-men, and to feel no interest in alleviating their miseries or promoting their improvement. It is even inconsistent with the spirit of religion and the duties of a Christian, to remain in indifference with regard to geographical knowledge for "the field" of Christian labor and benevolence is "the world" with its numerous tribes of inhabitants, which it is the great object of this science to inves tigate and describe. As the depositories of Revelation, of "the good things of great joy," which are intended to be communicated "to all people," we are bound to study this subject in all its bearings and relations, and to teach it to our children, and our children's children, that they may feel an interest in the moral condition of the inhabitants of distant lands, and employ their energies in diffusing Divine knowledge, in counteracting moral evils, in abolishing the system of warfare, and preparing the way for a harmonious intercourse among all the families of the earth. This science, therefore, ought to form a subject of study in every seminary devoted to the instruction of the young. Yet it is a fact, that, in the present state of society, we find thousands of our fellow-men almost as ignorant as the horse or the mule, of the arrangements of the world in which they dwell, and of the various tribes of human beings with which it is peopled-as if they had no connection with their brethren of the same family, nor any common relation to the Universal Parent who gave them existence.

This study, like many other scholastic exercises, has too frequently been conducted in a dry and uninteresting manner, and very inadequate ideas communicated of its grand features and leading objects. Lists of the names of towns, cities, countries, rivers, bays, and gulphs, have been imposed as tasks to the memory, without any corresponding ideas; and the mechanical exercises of copying maps, and twirling an artificial globe, have not unfrequently been substituted for clear and comprehensive views of the leading facts and principles of the science. Physical geography has been almost entirely omitted in the initiatory books on this subject; and most of them are constructed on this principle, that the meagre descriptions and details they contain shall be committed to memory by rote. In this way, months and even years have been spent, and as little real knowledge of geography acquired, as there is of theology by the common routine of committing to memory the vocables of the "Church Catechism," or the Westminster Assembly's synopsis of Divinity.

In communicating a knowledge of geography, it is requisite, in the first place, to give the young a clear and impressive idea of the size, form, compo nent parts, and general arrangements of the earth, considered simply as an object of contemplation, and a part of the creation of God. In stating to a class of pupils that "the earth is round like a ball," the

reasons or arguments which prove this position | nearly of the same figure, since it is nearly on the should be clearly and familiarly illustrated. If they same level as the sea, no part of it rising more than a are near the sea-coast, they should be conducted to mile or two above this level, except the peaks of a few the margin of the sea, to observe how the hull of a lofty mountains. Where there is no convenient acship, leaving the shore, disappears, near the horizon, cess to the sea-coast, or the margin of a lake or river, before the sails, and the sails before the topmast; and the same fact may be illustrated by the appearance a telescope should be provided, that the observation of a person going over the top of a conical hill,-or may be made with perfect distinctness. They may any waving tract of ground may be selected, and a be informed, at the same time, that a ship disappears little boy directed to walk from the one extremity from the view, in the same manner, in all parts of to the other, over the highest point of it; when it will the ocean; and if so, the ocean must form a part of be perceived, after having passed this point, that the the surface of a sphere; and if the ocean, with its lower parts of his body will first disappear, and that numerous ramifications of seas, straits, and gulfs, be the top of his head will be the last part of him that of a spherical form, the surface of the land must be will be visible, as represented in the following figure.

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The pupils may next be made to perceive, that if the earth be round like a globe, we might travel directly east or west, and, holding on in the same direction, without turning back, might arrive at the same point from which we set out; and then be informed, that the experiment has actually been made-that ships, at different periods, have sailed quite round the world, the course of which may afterwards be pointed out on the artificial globe. But, as these voyages have been made only in an easterly or westerly direction, they may be led to understand that, had we no other proofs of the earth's rotundity, this experiment would only prove that the earth is round in one direction, like a cylinder or a drum. The roundness of the earth, from north to south, might, at the same time, be explained from the fact, that when we travel a considerable distance from

N. to S. or from S. to N., a number of new stars successively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to which we are advancing, while many of those in the opposite quarter gradually disappear; which could not happen if the earth were a plane in that direction, like the longitudinal surface of a cylinder: for, in this case, we should see all the stars of the heavens, from the North pole to the South, on whatever portion of the cylindrical surface we were supposed to be placed. This might be illustrated by surrounding a terrestrial globe, or any other ball, with a large hoop or circle, about twice or thrice the diameter of the globe, on which some of the stars might be represented. This circle might be made either of wood or pasteboard, and the globe within it connected with a moveable plane to represent the horizon, as exhibited in the following figure.

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sight of all the stars situated between F and D, and | quisite to reduce the whole landscape to a perfect that the pole-star C, which, in his former position, level-the number of trees and shrubs of every kind was in his horizon, is now elevated 45 degrees contained within the range of their view-the alabove it. In a similar manner it might be shown most innumerable millions of flowers of every hue, that no such difference in the aspect of the starry stalks of corn, blades of grass, mosses almost invisiheavens could take place, in travelling from South ble to the naked eye, and vegetables of every deto North, or from North to South, were the earth of scription, which cover every portion of the landthe form of a cylinder; and consequently, that the scape-the cattle, sheep, horses, dogs, and other fact above stated proves the rotundity of the earth quadrupeds, and the multitudes of birds, worms, flyin that direction. ing and creeping insects, and microscopic animalThat the earth, considered as a whole, notwith- culæ, which no man can number, comprehended standing the irregularities caused by its mountains within the limits of their view-the number of houses and vales, is of the figure of a sphere, may be illus- and human beings in the towns, villages, and hamtrated from the phenomenon exhibited during the lets, which are scattered around, and the labors progress of an eclipse of the moon. An explanation in which they are employed-the mass of waters in of a lunar eclipse, accompanied with familiar illus- the rivers, and in that portion of the ocean which trations, will be requisite to be given, before the lies before them, (if such objects be in view,) and proof of the globular figure of the earth be deduced the numerous tribes of fishes which glide through from this phenomenon. Let the flame of a candle the watery element. Let them be directed to consior gas-lamp represent the sun, and a wooden ball, der the time and exertions which would be requisite supported by a wire, represent the earth; and let a to travel to the most distant part of the landscape, to circle somewhat less than the diameter of the ball, go quite round it, and to cross it in forty or fifty dibe drawn on a piece of pasteboard, and colored, to rections, so as to attain a more intimate inspection represent the moon. Let them be placed at a mo- of the multifarious scenes and objects of which it is derate distance from each other, and nearly in a composed. Let certain general calculations be straight line, and let the pupils mark the curve of made of the number and magnitude of such objects, the shadow of the ball on the circle representing the of the motion of the inanimate parts of nature, of moon, and that there is no body but one of the figure the activities of animated beings, and of the quanof a globe that can project a circular shadow in every tity of matter which appears on every hand. Havdirection; for, although a counter or a shilling will ing impressed upon their minds, as clearly as possi cast a circular shadow in one direction, yet in every ble, such ideas of the magnitude and variety of the other direction it is either an oval or a straight line. scene before them, let them be informed that the Hence the conclusion is easily deduced, that, if the landscape they are contemplating is about 50 miles shadow of the earth falling on the moon is the cause in circumference, and that its surface contains 200 of an eclipse of that orb, and if this shadow, so far square miles; but, that the whole surface of the as it is seen, is always a portion of a circle, the earth, earth contains more than 196 millions of square as a whole, must be nearly of a globular figure. In miles, and, consequently, is nine hundred and eighty order to render such explanations clear and impres- thousand times larger than all the objects they besive-when a visible eclipse of the moon takes place, hold around them; so that they must conceive 980,young persons should be directed to observe such a 000 landscapes as large as the one before them, bephenomenon with attention-to mark the figure of fore they can form an adequate idea of the magnithe earth's shadow when it first enters on the east- tude of the earth. To impress this idea more deepern margin of the moon-before it leave its western ly, they may likewise be told that, were they to reedge and during the whole of its progress along main in the station they now occupy, ten hours every the disk, if it happen to be a partial eclipse of the day, (the time usually allotted for daily labor,) and moon; and, although they be not directly engaged were a landscape of similar extent to that which in geographical studies at the time, yet such obser- they behold, to pass before their view every hour, till vations will afterwards prepare them for understand- the whole extent and scenery of the terraqueous ing such explanations as now suggested. Such mi- globe were brought under their observation, it would nute illustrations, so far from being superfluous or require more than two hundred and sixty-eight years unnecessary, are essentially requisite for producing before they could survey, even in this rapid and imin the minds of the young a rational conviction of perfect manner, the whole superficial dimensions the rotundity of the earth. I have known young and variegated scenery of the globe on which we ladies, and gentlemen too, who had passed through dwell. a scholastic course of geography, and yet could assign no other reason for their believing that the earth is globular, than this, "That their teacher told them so, and showed them a representation of it by thecies, but contains within its bowels an immense and artificial globe." Besides, such specific explanations and illustrations tend to exercise the reasoning powers of the young, and to bring to their view a variety of incidental facts and circumstances connected with the subject, and thus their store of general information is gradually increased.

Their attention should likewise be directed to the

solidity of the earth--that it is not a mere superfi

indescribable mass of matter, extending nearly 7900 or 8000 miles in every direction between the opposite portions of its circumference, amounting to more than 263 thousand millions of cubical miles. An idea of this enormous mass of materials may be communicated by such illustrations as the followHaving, by such methods as the above, produced the largest insulated mountains on the globe, and ing-Suppose Mount Etna-which ranks among a clear conviction of the spherical form of the earth, which contains around its sides 77 cities, towns, and the next step might be to convey an impressive idea villages, and 115,000 inhabitants to be 120 miles in of its magnitude. For this purpose, let a class of circumference around the base, about 10 miles in young persons be conducted to an eminence, where circumference near the top, and 2 miles in perpenthey might have a distinct view of a landscape dicular altitude, and considering its figure to be stretching about eight miles in every direction. Let their attention be particularly directed to the va- nearly that of the frustrum of a cone, it will contain rious objects which compose the scene before them; about 833 cubical miles, which is only the 316,756,481 let them be directed to consider the vast mass of ma- part of the solidity of the globe, reckoning it to conterials contained in the hills or mountains which tain 263,858,149,120 cubical miles; so that it would form a portion of the view-the millions of labor- require more than three hundred millions of mouners, and the number of years which it would be re-tains, such as Etna, to form a mass equal to that of

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