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been reprinted in London from the original wood-blocks, and though more suited to the taste of Germans than ordinary English Biblereaders have met with a large sale. They exhibit wonderful animation, variety, and power, though like most of Schnorr's works most successful in passages admitting of somewhat exaggerated expression and action. Schnorr has also made the designs for an illustrated edition of the Nibelungen published in 1843, but he is seen to a dis. advantage in designs of so small a size. An elder brother LUDWIG SCHNORR, born in 1789, also acquired considerable notice in early life by a large altar-piece of St. Cecilia, a Faust, and some other pictures, but he scarcely maintained the position his early success promised. He settled at Vienna where he painted many portraits, as well as various historical and genre pictures.

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We may notice here that the account of the donation by Gutenberg of certain books to the convent of St. Clare, stated to be contained in a deed in possession of the University of Mainz, is now known to have been a forgery. SCHOLEFIELD, REV. JAMES, M.A., was born November 15, 1789, at Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire. His father, Nathaniel Scholefield, was minister of the Independent Dissenters' chapel, in that town. He was educated in the school of Christ's Hospital, London, became a Grecian there, and obtained several prizes. He was entered of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1809. Having been elected Scholar in 1812, he in that year obtained the Craven University Scholarship. He took holy orders in October 1813, by special permission, before he had taken his degree of B.A. Soon afterwards, on SCHNURRER, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH, was born October 28, proceeding to his degree, he attained the place of Senior Chancellor's 1742, at Canstadt in Würtemberg. He studied at Tübingen, where, Medallist, and was first in the list of Senior Optimes. About the same in 1762, he began his career as an academical teacher. Four years time he became curate to Mr. Simeon, of Trinity Church, Cambridge. later he went to Göttingen, and afterwards made a journey through In October 1815, he was elected a Fellow of Trinity College. Having Holland, England, and France. On his return, in 1770, he was taken his degree of M.A., he obtained in July 1823, by presentation of appointed professor of philosophy at Tübingen, where he subsequently his college, the perpetual curacy of St. Michael's, Cambridge, where lectured on the Greek and Oriental languages. For some time he for thirty years he performed the duties of his sacred office with was ephorus of the theological faculty, and in 1805 he was appointed unwearied zeal and assiduity. On the death of Mr. Dobree, he was chancellor of the university. After the French were driven from elected, October 22, 1825, Regius Professor of Greek in the University Germany, Schnurrer became a member of the Chamber of Deputies in of Cambridge. In 1827 he married, and in the same year he comWürtemberg, and although his official position prevented him from menced the courses of lectures on the principal Greek authors, which, joining either party, he was always an advocate of liberal principles, with few interruptions, he continued for a quarter of a century. and was from the first opposed to the design of the government to In the Lent Term of each year he delivered lectures on Eschylus, restore the constitution of Würtemberg as it had been previous to the Plato, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, Demosthenes, and Pindar, year 1806. In 1817 the king of Würtemberg, in accordance with returning to each, on an average, once in seven years. In 1844 he the promise made at the Congress of Vienna, gave a new constitution made a tour in Scotland, and he visited that country three times afterto his kingdom, and on this occasion Schnurrer declared that he would wards. On the 11th of November 1849 the church of St Michael was willingly vote for its acceptance, provided the king would introduce burnt down. On the following day Dr. French, canon of Ely, died, it in the form of a contract between himself and his subjects. In con- and Mr. Scholefield succeeded him in the canonry, the preferment sequence of this boldness Schnurrer was deprived of his office, though being attached to the Regius Professorship of Greek. St. Michael's two years afterwards the government was obliged to adopt the plan church was rebuilt, and was re-opened January 11, 1852. Professor proposed by him. After his dismissal Schnurrer sold that part of his Scholefield's health however had been failing for some time, and he was extensive library which consisted of Arabic literature, and which he ordered by his medical adviser to refrain from preaching, and take had chiefly collected during his stay in England, to Mr. Knatchbull. rest in some healthful and pleasant place. For that purpose he retired Schnurrer died on the 10th of November 1822. to Hastings, on the coast of Sussex, and there died, April 4, 1853. He was buried at Fairlight, near Hastings.

Schnurrer was a man of great and accurate learning, especially in Oriental literature, but his official duties prevented him from producing many great works. His writings, though numerous, are mostly small dissertations on historical and theological subjects, written on various occasions and in programs. From the year 1793 he took an active part in a literary journal called 'Tübinger Literarische Nach richten.' His Bibliotheca Arabica,' the last edition of which appeared at Halle, 1811, is a work of great learning and diligence. His 'Orationum Academicarum Delectus Posthumus,' was edited by Paulus, Tübingen, 1828. The Life of Schnurrer has been written by Weber, under the title of 'C. F. Schnurrers Leben, Charakter, und Verdienste,' Canstadt, 1823.

SCHÖFFER, PETER, though commonly called one of the inventors of printing, appears to have been rather one of its first material improvers. He was born at Gernsheim in Hesse-Darmstadt, and is said in early life to have worked as a copyist in Paris. Soon after the commencement of the partnership between Gutenberg and Fust, Schöffer appears to have repaired to Mainz, and to have been employed by them. In the account given by Trithemius [GUTENBERG), he is stated to have "discovered the more easy method of casting the types." Gutenberg however must have cast types, and Schöffer's improvement was that of cutting punches, by which greater symmetry in the type was attained, and a correct reproduction of the matrices secured. The extent of Schöffer's share in the discovery or improvement of printing has been discussed in Dahl's 'P. Schöffer von Gernsheim, Miterfinder der Buchdruckerkunst,' 1814, followed in 1832 by Die Buchdruckerkunst, erfunden von Johann Gutenberg, verbessert und zur Volkommenheit gebracht durch Peter Schöffer von Gernsheim;' and in 'P. H. Kuelb's Peter Schöffer, der Vollender der Buchdruckerkunst,' published in 1836. After Fust and Gutenberg had separated in 1455, Schöffer became a partner with Fust, whose daughter he married. His name appears with Fust's at the end of the Psalter of 1457, and they continued to print jointly till Fust's death in 1466. The list of their books has been already given in a former volume. [FUST.] The list of books printed by Schöffer alone after Fust's death is a long one. It will be found in Panzer's Annals,' vol. ii., 4to, Norimb., 1794, p. 117-136, with an enumeration of other works supposed to be his by the type, but without his name. Among those certainly known as his, are, the 'Secunda Secundæ' of S. Thomas Aquinas; and the second edition of the 'Constitutions of Clement V., 1467; the 'Institutions of Justinian,' 1468; St. Thomas Aquinas's 'Commentary on Peter Lombard,' fol., 1469; the second edition of the 'Sixth Book of the Decretals of Pope Boniface VIII.;' 'Biblia Latina,' 2 vols. fol., 1472; and 'Herbarium, cum Herbarum Figuris,' 4to, 1484. His last work of all was a Latin Psalter, fol., 1502; in which year he is supposed to have died. He had three sons, all printers, of whom the eldest, John Schöffer, succeeded him in his business; his name appears alone as the printer of Mercurius Trismegistus,' in 1503, and of many subsequent works, and he is known to have practised his art as late as 1533.

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Professor Scholefield's principal literary publications are as follows. In 1826 he published a new edition of Porson's Four Tragedies of Euripides; in 1828 an edition of Middleton's Treatise on the Greek Article;' an edition of Eschylus, with notes critical and explanatory; and a new edition of Bishop Leighton's 'Prælectiones.' His next work was Petri Pauli Dobree Adversaria,' containing Dobree's notes on the Greek historians, philosophers, and minor orators, of which Part I. was published January 1831; Part II. November 1831; and Part III. January 1833. In 1832 he published 'Hints for an Improved Translation of the New Testament,' and in 1831 an edition of the New Testament, in which the original Greek and authorised English version are printed in parallel columns. In 1843 he published an edition of the Eumenides' of Eschylus. Several of his sermons have been published in a separate form.

(Memoirs of the Rev. James Scholefield, M.A., late of Trinity College, Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, Perpetual Curate of St. Michael's, and Canon of Ely, by his Widow, with Notes on his Literary Character by the Rev. William Selwyn, M.A., Canon of Ely, 8vo, 1855.)

SCHOLZ, JOHANN MATTHIAS AUGUST, was born at Kapsdorf near Breslau in Prussian Silesia on February 8, 1794. He received his early education in the Roman Catholic gymnasium of Breslau, in 1812 entered the university there where he studied theology and philology; and in 1814 gained a prize in the Roman Catholic theological faculty for his essay on the Parable of the Vineyard. Shortly afterwards he commenced his critical labours on the text of the New Testament, and with this object after he had for two years availed himself of the materials in the library of Vienna, in 1817-19 he visited Paris and London, Switzerland and Italy. In 1820, immediately after being appointed professor extraordinary of theology at Bonn, he joined the expedition under Minutoli for the exploration of Egypt and the neighbouring countries. The travellers disagreed and parted, but Scholz journeyed through Egypt Palestine, and Syria for four months, when he returned to Trieste. At Breslau in 1821 he took priest's orders, exercised his functions at Bonn, and in 1823 was made professor of theology in the university and a canon of the cathedral. He died in November 1852. Among his principal works we may mention 'Reise in die Gegend zwischen Alexandrien und Parätonium, die libysche Wüste, Siwa, Ägypten, Palästina, und Syrien, in den Jahren 1820 und 1821,' which was a selection from his diary, and was published in 1822. In 1825 he issued at Bonn his 'Commen tatio de Golgathæ et Jesu Christi Sepulcri situ,' in 1834 his 'Handbuch der biblischen Archäologie,' and in 1830 and 1835, the great object of his studies, the text of the New Testament, under the title of Novum Testamentum Græce,' in two volumes. Scholz's excellence as a philologist has been generally acknowledged, and his labours are held in high estimation.

SCHOMBERG, ARMAND FREDERIC DE, was of German family, but born of an English mother, of the house of Dudley, in

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SCHOMBURGK, SIR ROBERT HERMANN.

or about 1608. Bred a soldier, he began his career in the Swedish army, during the Thirty Years' war, and was punished by the emperor for the part which he took by confiscation of his property. He then entered the service of the Netherlands, and afterwards that of France, in which, from 1650 to 1685, he led an active and distinguished life, and rose to the rank of marshal. In 1685, the revocation of the edict of Nantes drove him, with many other of the best and most useful subjects of France, to seek liberty of conscience in another country; and he betook himself first to the service of Portugal, then to that of the Elector of Brandenburg, and lastly to that of the Prince of Orange, when about to make his descent upon England in 1688. In our own country the course of events gave little opportunity for the exercise of military talent. Schomberg was sent to Ireland in 1689, as commander-in-chief; where, during ten months, his successes fell short of the expectation raised by his high reputation. Age perhaps had made him over-cautious. He was killed July 1, 1690, by a pistol shot, at the battle of the Boyne, while gallantly leading a regiment of French Protestants across the SCHOMBURGK, ROBERT HERMANN, KNIGHT, son of the Rev. John Frederick Lewis Schomburgk, a German Protestant minister in Thuringia, was born in 1804. From his early years he has been devoted to geographical science and to the study of natural history. In 1831 he was sent out to the West Indies to survey the island of Anegada, one of the Virgin Islands, surrounded by coral reefs, on which many shipwrecks had occurred. In 1835 he undertook a mission from the Royal Geographical Society of London to explore the interior of Guiana. His researches were carried on in the face of difficulties of a very formidable character, but he succeeded in tracing the more important rivers and in exploring the interior of the country, so as to be able to describe in a far more satisfactory manner than had been hitherto done the physical features, geology, and natural history of Guiana; much indeed being for the first time made known to the scientific world. It was during this exploratory journey that Mr. Schomburgk in making his way up the Berbice River discovered, January 1, 1837, the Victoria Regia water lily, the most magnificent aquatic plant known to exist: he communicated an account of his discovery to the London Botanical Society, where it was read September 7, 1837. The plant itself we need hardly say has been made a denizen of the great public and private conservatories of this country. Full accounts of his journeys in Guiana were communicated during their progress to the Royal Geographical Society, and published in the 'Journal' of that society, and much of their substance was afterwards embodied in his work on British Guiana. On his return to England in 1839 Mr. Schomburgk received the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society for his Travels and Researches during the years 1835-39 in the Colony of British Guiana, and in the adjacent parts of South America.' In the following year, 1840, he was sent by the British government to make a survey of British Guiana. Having successfully accomplished this object he was knighted on his return. published shortly after a very valuable account of the country under the title of A Description of British Guiana.' He also published a series of Views in the Interior of Guiana.' In 1847 Sir R. H. Schomburgk published a very elaborate History of Barbadoes,' a work of great research and value. In 1848 he was appointed British consul to the republic of St. Domingo, and in 1857 to Bang-kok in Siam.

He

Sir Robert has continued to pursue in San Domingo his scientific labours, and the results have been at intervals communicated to the Geographical and other societies. One of his very valuable papers deserves to be specially mentioned, an account of his investigation of the physical geography, &c., of the 'Peninsula and Bay of Samaná in the Dominican Republic,' which he communicated to the foreign office, and which was printed in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,' vol. xxiii., 1853. Sir R. H. Schomburgk enjoys a European reputation, as is evinced by the honours he has received from various courts and learned societies: he was nominated a knight of the Prussian order of the Red Eagle in 1840; of the Saxon order of Merit in 1845; and a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1847; he was created Doctor of Philosophy by the University of Königsberg, and he has been elected an honorary member of several of the learned societies of Europe and America. [See SUPPLEMENT.]

SCHÖN or SCHONGAUER, MARTIN, one of the most celebrated of the early German painters and engravers, was, according to recent discoveries, born at Ulm of a family which produced many artists somewhere about the year 1420; his name occurs in Ulm documents from 1441 to 1461. The inscription therefore upon the back of his portrait in the gallery at Munich, though probably authentic, is apparently erroneous. He settled about 1461 at Colmar, and died there February 2, 1488.

Martin appears to have been chiefly an engraver in his youth, and to have devoted his attention principally to painting after a visit to the Netherlands, where he became acquainted with the excellent works of the Van Eycks and their scholars. He probably resided some time at Antwerp, as he was sometimes called by the Italians Martino d'Anversa; and from a letter of Lambertus Lombardus to Vasari dated April 27, 1565, and published by Gaye in his Carteggio Inedito d'Artisti, iii. 177, it is supposed that he studied under Roger van Bruges, now from good evidence considered to be the painter

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of the portable altar of Charles V., which has been hitherto attributed to Memling.

The best works of Martin Schön are still at Colmar in the college library, but there are many which are attributed to him in the collec tions of Munich, Vienna, Nurnberg, and Schleissheim, and in other places, as Ulm, Stuttgart, Basel, Berlin, &c His pictures are in all respects similar to those of other pupils of the Van Eyck school, but are inferior in colour to those of his master Roger van Bruges; they are notwithstanding among the best works of their style. Many of the pictures of an inferior painter, Martin Schaffner, have been and still are ascribed to Martin Schön. None of his pictures are signed with either a name or a monogram, but his prints are generally marked with a monogram.

Schön's prints, though crude in light and shade, are among the best of the early productions of the Germans in this class. Bartsch enumerates and describes 116. Seventeen others bear his monogram, but are supposed not to be by him; and twelve very doubtful prints are enumerated by Heineken the list is reprinted in Nagler's Künstler Lexicon.' Schön, which in German signifies excellent and beautiful, is supposed to be a nickname of this artist, whose real name was Schongauer; he was formerly called Hübsch Martin by the Germans, and Bel Martino and Buon Martino by the Italians. There was an earlier painter and wood engraver of the name of Martin Schoen at Ulm, who was active from 1394 until 1416. In the National Gallery is a composition of many small figures, 'The Death of the Virgin,' by him.

(Sandrart, Deutsche Academie, &c.; Bartsch, Peintre Graveur ; Grüneisen, Ulms Kuntsleben im Mittelalter; Von Quandt, Kuntsblatt, 1840; Waagen, Kuntswerke und Künstler in Deutschland, vol. iii.; Nagler, Neues Allgemeines Künstler Lexicon; Passavant, Peintre Graveur.) SCHÖNLEIN, JOHANN LUK, a distinguished German physician. He was born at Bamberg on the 30th of November 1793, and received his early education in the gymnasium of that place. He afterwards studied in the universities of Landshut and Wurzburg, in the latter of which he took his degree of Doctor of Medicine in the year 1816. He afterwards studied at Göttingen and Jena, but returned to Wurzburg in 1819. The following year he was made Professor of Clinical Medicine in the Julius Hospital. Here he distinguished himself for his industry in the observation of disease. In 1833 be accepted the professorship of Clinical Medicine at Zurich. In 1840 he commenced delivering lectures in Berlin, and in the course of a short time attracted great attention on account of the wide and accurate knowledge of the nature of disease which he displayed. He was appointed Professor of Pathology in the university, and also professor at the Medical and Surgical Military Academy of Berlin. He is chiefly known out of Germany by the clinical reports of his lectures and cases published by his pupils. He has published nothing himself. Those however who are anxious to discover his opinions will find them in a work entitled General and Special Pathology, and Therapeutics,' published at Wurzburg, in four volumes, in 1832. [See SUPPLEMENT.]

SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY ROWE, celebrated on account of his travels among the native Indians of North America, and his researches into their language and antiquities, was born on the 28th of March 1793, at Hamilton in Albany, New York, where his father, Colonel Lawrence Schoolcraft, was the manager of extensive glass-works. Having while a mere child displayed a remarkable talent for drawing and painting, negociations were entered into for his apprenticeship to a portrait-painter, but his destination is said to have been changed to that of a house-painter, though it does not appear that he was actually apprenticed; and we find him at a sufficiently early age engaged in the study of literature and science. At the age of fourteen he was a contributor of both prose and verse to the newspapers, and he was, we are told, already occupied in the study of the philosophy of languages. At the age of fifteen he entered Union College, where he completed his scholastic education. Hebrew, German, and French he is said to have taught himself during the intervals of collegiate study and newspaper writing, and he at the same time was assiduously engaged in the study of mineralogy. In 1816 he commenced the publication of a work on the manufacture of glass, enamel, &c., and the application of chemistry to these arts, under the title of Vitreology,' but not meeting with a sufficient sale it was discontinued.

He began in 1817 the course of travel and inquiry to which he owes his reputation, by a journey, prosecuted through that and part of the following year, down the Alleghany river to the Ohio, thence up the Missouri to St. Louis, exploring the whole of the Missouri shore on foot, as well as the district around Potosi, and thence to the Ozack and highland regions extending to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, and the wilder parts of Arkansas. His object in this journey was to make a geological exploration of the country and to form a mineralogical collection; and having arranged his notes and specimens he proceeded to Washington, in the hope of inducing the government to undertake the working of the lead mines of Missouri. He met with a warm reception from the scientific men of the capital, his collections being the first of the kind made, with any approach to completeness, in America. In like manner his account of the Mines and Mineral Resources of Missouri' (8vo, 1819), was recognised as the first detailed description of a North American mining district which had then been published. The success of this work led to his appointment by Calhoun as geologist to the exploring expedition under

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General Cass, despatched by the government in the spring of 1820, to the sources of the Mississippi. Of this expedition he published on his return in 1821, his 'Journal,' and also his geological report. These works added much to his reputation, and of the 'Journal' a large edition was sold in a few weeks. Having been appointed secretary to an Indian conference at Chicago, he made in 1821 a lengthened journey along the Miami and Wabash rivers, and into Illinois, of which he published an account under the title of Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley.'

In 1822 he was appointed by President Monroe agent for Indian affairs in the North Western Provinces, his residence being fixed at the foot of Lake Superior. Here he became acquainted with and married Miss Jane Johnston, the eldest daughter of an Irish gentleman who had settled in those parts, and married the daughter of Wa-bo-jeeg, a celebrated war sachem and hereditary ruling cacique. Miss Johnston, who had been sent to Europe to be educated, was a young lady of accomplishments and literary tastes, but she had derived from her mother an intimate acquaintance with the Indian language and traditions for which she retained a warm attachment. His marriage with her stimulated his interest in Indian matters and smoothed his way for the acquisition of all kinds of information; and during a continuous residence of twenty years in the vicinity of Indian tribes at Elmwood and Michilimackinack he pursued with untiring ardour the investigation of the Indian languages, ethnology, and antiquities, abandoning for them, to a great extent the geological studies which had won him his early reputation. But during all this time he was constantly engaged in his official and extra-official duties. He attended several important conferences of Indian tribes, and in 1831 was sent on two or three occasions, accompanied by United States troops, to advise or compel hostile tribes to arrange their differences. From 1828 to 1832 he was a member of the territorial legislature, and in that capacity he procured the passing of several laws tending to benefit the Indian races; he also induced the legislature to adopt a system of county and township names formed by him on the basis of the aboriginal vocabulary. During this time he managed the finances of the territory; and he founded in 1828 the Michigan Historical Society, and the Algic Society of Detroit for the investigation of the Indian language and antiquities.

In 1832 Mr. Schoolcraft was directed to conduct an expedition to the Upper Mississippi, north and west of St. Anthony's Falls. Of this journey he published an account with maps, under the title of 'An Expedition to Itasca Lake,' New York, 1834. Mr. Schoolcraft "succeeded in tracing the Mississippi up to its ultimate forks, and to its actual source in Itasca Lake, which point he reached on the 23rd of July, 1832." According to the writer of 'Sketches of the Life of H. R. Schoolcraft,' prefixed to his 'Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes,' he is "the only man in America who has seen the Mississippi from its source in Itasca Lake to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico."

In 1836 President Jackson appointed Mr. Schoolcraft commissioner to treat with the Indian tribes of the north-west for the purchase of their lands, and he succeeded in obtaining from them a tract of some 16,000,000 acres in the region of the Upper Lakes. On the completion of this negociation he was appointed acting superintendent of Indian affairs for the northern department, and in 1839 chief disbursing agent for the same department.

One of his earliest undertakings in connection with his Indian studies was the construction of a complete lexicon of the Algonquin language -or the primitive and most widely-diffused of the aboriginal languages; and he reduced the grammar of this language to a system. He read before the Algic Society a course of lectures on the Algonquin language, and two of them being translated into French by M. Duponceau, obtained for him the gold medal of the National Institute of France. In 1839 appeared his 'Algic Researches, comprising Inquiries respecting the Mental Characteristics of the North American Indians: First Series, Indian Tales and Legends,' 2 vols. 12mo, New York, 1839: a valuable body of legends collected by him from the Indian wigwams, or obtained by his wife from her family stores. No book had given so faithful an image of the domestic life and habits of thought of the aboriginal Americans; and if we have since been able to penetrate even further into their inner life, it has been chiefly by means of Mr. Schoolcraft's subsequent publications.

SCHOOTEN, FRANCIS.

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him an honorary member. In 1844 he published in numbers the first volume of a miscellany entitled 'Oneota, or the Indian in his Wigwam,' in which he gave popular sketches of the history, custos, poetry, traditions, &c., of the Indians, with descriptions of their country, in extracts from his journals, besides much other miscellaneous information respecting them. About the same time appeared a collection of his poetry, under the title of Alhalla, or the Lord of Talledaga, a Tale of the Creek War, and some Miscellaneous Pieces,' some of them previously printed. He also printed an 'Address' delivered before the Ethnological Society of New York, of which he was one of the founders; a paper on the 'Grave Creek Mound in Western Virginia' (in the Transactions' of the American Ethnological Society); an 'Address' delivered before the New York Historical Society; and some other papers.

In 1845 the legislature of the state of New-York empowered Mr. Schoolcraft to take a census and collect statistics of the Iroquois or Six Nations, and the results were published in the following year under the title of 'Notes on the Iroquois, or Contributions to the Statistics, Aboriginal History, Antiquities, and General Ethnology of Western New-York.' This work, which gave a much more favourable view than was commonly held of the condition and prospects of the tribes, was a good deal canvassed, but was received with very general approbation. In 1846 Mr. Schoolcraft succeeded in bringing the Aborigines question under the notice of Congress, and by a large body of various information enforcing his opinion that their character had been misunderstood and a wrong policy adopted towards them; and he strongly urged the importance of the executive making a strenuous effort to collect such historical and other information as might still be preserved among them, as well as full information respecting their actual condition. In consequence of his representations the Congress passed an act, authorising the appropriation of the necessary funds for the purpose and directing the secretary of war "to collect the statistics of all the tribes within the Union, together with materials to illustrate their history, condition, and prospects." The enquiry was entrusted to Mr. Schoolcraft, who issued an elaborate series of questions, "embodying the results of his thirty years' studies," and carried out the investigation with a rare amount of zeal and energy. The first part of his report appeared in 1850 in the shape of a bulky quarto volume, entitled 'Historical and Statistical Information respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, collected and prepared under the direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, per Act of Congress of March 3rd, 1847, by H. R. S., illustrated by S. Eastman, Capt. U. S. army: published by Authority of Congress; and three more parts or volumes have since appeared. This great work, in its way unique, must always remain a standard authority on the interesting subject of which it treats; and with Mr. Schoolcraft's more popular works it comprises that complete 'Indian Cyclopædia' which in his earlier days it was his ambition to produce. During the progress of this his great work-to carry on which effectually he had removed with his second wife to Washington-he commenced the publication of a revised series of his complete works,' by the publication, in one 8vo volume, Phil. 1851, of his 'Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty years with the Indian Tribes on the American Frontiers, 1812-1842,' a work answering pretty closely to its title, and consequently neither systematic nor profound, and, despite of many remarkable personal adventures, in its disconnection not very entertaining, but full of materials serviceable to those interested in Indian manners, language, and history: prefixed to it is a somewhat too magniloquent life of the author, from which the materials of this sketch are (with the assistance of Mr. Schoolcraft's writings) mainly derived. Mr. Schoolcraft has since published 'American Indians, their History, Condition, and Prospects, from Original Notes and Manuscripts,' 1 vol. 8vo; 'Scenes and Adventures in the Semi-Alpine Region of the Ozack Mountains of Missouri and Arkansas,' 8vo, 1853; and 'The Myth of Hiawatha and other Oral Legends, Mythological, and Allegoric, of the North American Indians,' 8vo, Phil., 1856. The last work was published in consequence of the popularity of Long. fellow's celebrated poem of Hiawatha. In the Notes to that poem, Mr. Longfellow mentions Mr. Schoolcraft's writings as the source whence he derived his legend, and Mr. Schoolcraft was induced by this notice to revise and recast his Algic Researches,' which had long been out of print, and give the Indian stories in their original simplicity.

He now resolved to remove to New York, and digest the immense mass of materials he had so laboriously collected. Arriving in that city in 1841, he issued proposals-with a specimen number-of an Besides being a member of the chief American literary and scientific 'Indian Cyclopædia,' which was intended to embrace the history, societies Mr. Schoolcraft is an associate or member of the Geographical ethnology, and philology of the tribes, and the geography and anti-Society of London, the Ethnological Society of Paris, and the Society quities of the country occupied by them; but he could find no publisher of Northern Antiquaries, Copenhagen. In 1816 the University of willing to undertake the risk of a work of such magnitude, and the Geneva conferred upon him the degree of LL.D. [See SUPPLEMENT.] scheme fell to the ground. He then resolved to undertake a tour in Europe, partly in order to make himself better acquainted with the recent progress in archæological and philological studies. His works had already rendered his name familiar in Europe, and he received a warm welcome both in this country and on the Continent; but during his absence he lost his wife, the companion of his Indian studies. On his return to America he made an antiquarian tour in Western Virginia, Ohio, and the Canadas; and he communicated the result of his examinations of the great Indian mounds which he saw in this journey to the Geographical Society of Denmark, which had elected

BIOG. DIV. VOL. V.

SCHOOTEN, FRANCIS, a Dutch mathematician of the 17th century, of whose life scarcely any particulars have been preserved. He was professor of mathematics at Leyden, and was one of the young philo sophers, chiefly natives of Holland, who, rising superior to the prejudices of the age in favour of the ancient geometry, contributed most to the establishment and promotion of what was then called the New analysis -the algebra of Descartes and the infinitesimal calculus.

In 1646 he published a small tract on conic sections, in which are given s veral ways of describing those curves by a continuous motion; and in 1649 he gave to the world a Latin translation, accompanied by

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a learned commentary, of the geometry of Descartes. Ten years afterwards he publ bed, with numerous additions, a second edition of the commentary in two volumes. This work has met with general approbation, as it presents a clear explanation of the subject without the prolixity which usually accompanies the writings of a commentator; it is also enriched with the researches of several distinguished mathematicians of the age. It contains two letters from Hudde (burgomaster of Amsterdam) on the reduction of equations, on the method of tangents, and on propositions concerning maxima and minima; and one from Van Heuraet on the rectification of curves. There are also two tracts by M. Beaune on the limits of equations, and one entitled 'Elementa Curvarum,' by the unfortunate minister De Witt.

In 1651 he published his 'Principia Matheseos,' and in 1657 his 'Exercitationes Mathematica.' The latter work, which is now scarce, contains, besides the solutions of several curious and intricate propositions, many useful and instructive applications of algebra to geometry, particularly a restoration, in part and in an algebraic form, of the treatise on Plane Loci,' from the works of Apollonius.

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The year of Schooten's birth is not known, but he died in 1659, while the second volume of the commentary above mentioned was in the press. SCHOREL, or SCHOOREL, JOHN, was born in 1495, at Schoorl, a village near Alkmaar in Holland. His parents dying when he was very young, he was put to school by some near relations; and as he very early manifested a decided inclination for the art of design, they placed him, at the age of fourteen, under William Cornelis, an indifferent painter, with whom he remained three years, and made much greater progress than might have been expected. He afterwards studied under James Cornelis at Amsterdam, a much abler artist, who took great pains to instruct him. The fame of John de Mabuse, who was living in high esteem at Utrecht, induced Schorel to place himself under him; but he soon left him, on account of his dissolute manners, which disgusted the young artist. Schorel then travelled through Germany, and passed some time at Nürnberg with Albert Dürer, who treated him with great kindness. He next went to Venice, where he met with an ecclesiastic, his countryman, who persuaded him to join a company of pilgrims to the Holy Land. In Palestine he made numerous sketches of Jerusalem and the environs of the country about Jordan, and whatever appeared worthy of his attention. On his way to the Holy Land he landed at Cyprus; and on his return, at Rhodes, where he was received with much distinction by Villiers, the grand-master of the knights of St. John. In these islands he likewise enriched his portfolio with numerous sketches, which were of great use to him in his future compositions. On returning to Europe he passed three years at Rome, studying the works of Raffaelle and other great masters and the antique. He was the first of the artists of the Netherlands who introduced the Italian taste into his own country. He settled at Utrecht. His works were very numerous, and are spoken of in the highest terms of praise: among them the Baptism of Christ, Christ's Entry into Jerusalem, the Passage of the Israelites over Jordan, and some others, are particularly mentioned. Unfortunately all bis great works in the churches and convents were destroyed by the Iconoclasts, in 1566, only four years after his death. Though many in private collections escaped destruction, his works are now excessively scarce. In the collection of old paintings made by Messrs. Boisserée, now in the possession of the king of Bavaria, are four of his pictures; and in Lord Methuen's gallery at Corsham House there is one, of which Dr. Waagen speaks in very high terms of praise. Schorel, who, besides his eminence as a painter, was one of the most accomplished men of his time, died at Utrecht, December 6, 1562. In the National Gallery are two pictures ascribed to Van Schorel. SCHOTT, ANDREW, was born on the 12th of September, 1552, at Antwerp. He studied at Louvain, where he afterwards taught rhetoric. But the disturbances in the Netherlands obliged him to withdraw; and about 1577 he went to Paris, where for some time he assisted Busbecq in his literary occupations. After a stay of two years in France he went to Spain, where he became acquainted with some persons of influence at the court of Philip II., in consequence of which he obtained a professorship of Greek literature at Toledo. Schott gained so high a reputation, that in 1584 he was invited to the professorship of Greek and rhetoric in the university of Saragossa. In 1586 he entered the order of the Jesuits, and in consequence of this began the study of theology, which he subsequently taught at Saragossa, until he was invited to Rome as professor of rhetoric in the college of the Jesuits. Here he remained for three years, and at the close of this period he asked and obtained permission to return to Antwerp. The remainder of his life he spent at Antwerp, devoting himself entirely to literary pursuits. He died on the 23d of January, 1629.

Schott was a man of great industry and sincerity: he was kind and obliging to all persons, whether Romanist or Protestant, his only object being to advance the interests of learning and science. As a scholar he is more remarkable for his great and accurate learning than for his genius or critical talents. His works amounted to the number of forty-seven: we shall only give a list of the more important among them. 'Laudatio Funebris Ant. Augusti Archiep. Tarraconensis, in qua ejus Vita Scriptsque disseritur,' Leyden, 4to., 1586; Vita Comparata Aristotelis acDemosthenis, Olympiadibus ac Præturis Atheni

SCHUBERT, FRANZ.

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ensium digestæ,' Augsburg, 4to., 1603; 'Hispania Illustrata, seu rerum urbiumque Hispaniæ, Lusitaniæ, Ethiopia et Indiæ Scriptores varii,' Frankfurt, 4 vols. fol., 1603, 1618: the first two vols. of this very important work were edited by Schott himself, the third by his brother, and the fourth by Pistorius. Thesaurus Exemplorum ac Sententiarum ex Auctoribus Optimis collectus, in centurias quatuor divisus,' Antwerp, 8vo., 1607; Hispania Bibliotheca, seu de Academiis et Bibliothecis, item Elogia et Nomenclator Clarorum Hispaniæ Scriptorum, qui Latine Disciplinas omnes illustrarunt,' Frankfurt, 4to., 1608: this work, though of great value for the literary history of Spain, has many defects; and as the author's name does not appear on the title-page, it has been thought that the work was not written by Schott himself. Adagia, sive Proverbia Græcorum ex Zenobio, Diogeniano, et Suidæ collectaneis partim edita, partim nunc primum Latine reddita; accedunt Proverbiorum Græcorum e Vaticana Bibliotheca Appendix et Jos. Scaligeri Stromateus,' Antwerp, 1612, 4to.; 'Observationum Humanarum Libri Quinque quibus Græci Latinique Scriptores emendantur et illustrantur,' &c., Hanau, 4to., 1615; Tabulæ Rei Nummaria Romanorum Græcorumque ad Belgicam, Gallicam, &c. monetam revocatæ, cum brevi Catalogo eorum qui apud Græcos Latinosque de Ponderibus, Mensuris et Re Nummaria scripserunt,' Antwerp, 8vo., 1616; Selecta Variorum Commentaria in Orationes Ciceronis,' Cologne, 3 vols, 8vo, 1621. Schott also took a part in the edition of the Bibliotheca Patrum,' which appeared at Cologne in 1618, &c. He also published editions of several ancient writers, such as Aurelius Victor, Pomp. Mela, Orosius, St. Basilius, Theophylactes, and wrote notes upon Valerius Flaccus and Corn. Nepos. He also edited, with additions, the Annales Romani' of Pighius, the 'Itinerary' of Antoninus, Goltzius's 'History of Sicily,' Rosini's 'Antiquitates Romanæ,' and the 'Lettres' of Paul Manutius.

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*SCHOUW, JOACHIM FRIEDRICH, professor of botany and superintendant of the botanic gardens at Copenhagen. He was born at Copenhagen in 1789. He entered the university in the year 1808 and commenced the study of the law, but natural science having more attractions he gave himself up to the study of botany. In 1812 he made a natural history tour through Norway, and in 1816 he published an essay entitled De sedibus plantarum originariis,' for which he was honoured with the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. He afterwards travelled throughout Europe in search of botanical information, and in 1822 commenced publishing his 'Elements of a Universal Geography of Plants,' which was accompanied by an atlas. In 1835 he was elected to represent the University of Copenhagen in the Danish States' Assembly, and was for three successive years president of that body. He was remarkable for his liberal opinions, and especially for his advocacy of the freedom of the press. In 1844 he was chosen spokesman of the deputation who presented a petition to the king, praying for equal rights in the dukedom of Schleswig. Besides the botanical works above, Dr. Schouw has published many others on the distribution of plants, and the relations of climate to natural history productions. One of them entitled 'Earth, Plants, and Man,' has been translated into English by Professor Henfrey. Dr. Schouw is undoubtedly one of the greatest authorities on the subject of the distribution of plants, and his views on the subject of their relations are everywhere adopted as the basis of modern researches on this subject.

SCHREVE’LIUS, CORNELIUS, was born at Haarlem in South Holland, about the year 1615. He was brought up as a physician, but it is not stated if he ever practised this profession, and he is only known by his literary labours. In 1662 he succeeded his father as rector of a school at Leyden, which place he held till his death in 1664, according to some, or in 1667 according to others. Schrevelius published editions of many of the Latin classical writers with notes collected from various critics; Juvenal, Persius, Terence, Virgil, Horace, and Cicero are among the number. He also published a Hesiod and Homer in the same way. He also edited the Lexicon' of Scapula, and that of Hesychius, which bears date the year 1668, after the death of Schrevelius, as appears from the dedication of the printer. Schrevelius is best known by his Lexicon Manuale GræcoLatinum,' the fourth edition of which is said to have appeared in 1645. Works of this kind should be estimated by the period to which they belong, and in this view the 'Lexicon Manuale' had the merit of furnishing the young scholar with a cheap dictionary of the Greek language. This dictionary however is of very limited use, as it is only applicable to a few authors. Perhaps few school-books have been more extensively used; the editions both English and foreign are innumerable: but it is formed on a plan fundamentally bad, and is full of errors of all kinds.

SCHUBERT, FRANZ, a German composer, of whose biography very little is known. He was born at Vienna, January 31, 1797, and died in the same city, November 19, 1828. He composed several operas, symphonies, and other works of magnitude; but they never attracted much notice, and his short life appears to have been spent in neglect and obscurity. His large works are forgotten; but he has gained a great amount of posthumous fame by his songs and ballads, many of which are extant, and generally admired, not only in Ger many, but in Italy, France, England, America, and indeed throughout the whole musical world; and they deserve their reputation, for, while their simple, natural, and expressive melody delights the popular

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ear, the most accomplished musician is charmed by their masterly construction and inexhaustible richness of fancy. But the songs which pass under Schubert's name are very unequal in merit, and it is believed that many of them are not his composition, but spurious imitations of his style.

*SCHUBERT, GOTTHILF HEINRICH VON, Professor of Natural History in the University of Munich, was born April 26, 1780, at Hohenstein in Saxony, where his father was minister. He received his early education at Greiz and Weimar, and whilst at Weimar attracted the notice of Herder, who received him into his house. He com menced the study of theology in the University of Leipzig, but a year after he left for Jena, where he devoted himself to the study of medicine. He commenced practice as a physician in Altenberg, and met with considerable success; but he was fond of literature, and this led him to the study of natural history. In 1804 he published a romance entitled 'Die Kirche und die Götter.' After remaining two years in Altenberg, he went to Freiburg, in order to study geology. In 1807 he repaired to Dresden to study the art-treasures of that city; here he delivered lectures on natural science, which he afterwards published, under the title of Views of the Night-side of Nature: he had already published one volume of his great work on the Universal History of Life,' which was completed in 1820. In 1809 he accepted the position of tutor to the children of the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. On resigning this appointment he became professor of natural history in the University of Erlangen, and subsequently accepted the same chair at Munich.

Schubert has published a great many works, all of them partaking more or less of a metaphysical character. Some of his writings are devoted to religious subjects, and are treated of in a pietistic and mystical manner. He has written several volumes giving an account of his travels; such are his 'Journeys in the East,' 'Travels in the South of France and Italy,' and others. SCHULTENS, ALBERT, a learned divine, was born at Groningen in 1686. He studied at that place till 1706, and made rapid progress in theology, Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic. He then visited Leyden, and attended the lectures of the most eminent professors at that university. Thence he passed to Utrecht, where he met Reland, and profited by his lessons. On his return to Groningen in 1708 Schultens took holy orders, and in 1711 became curate of Wassenaar. Two years after he was appointed professor of the Oriental languages at Franeker, where he remained till 1720. He was then invited to Leyden, where he taught Hebrew and the Oriental languages with great reputation till his death, which happened on the 26th of January 1750, in the sixty-fourth year of his age. He left a son, named John Jacob, who was professor of divinity at Herborn, and who afterwards succeeded him in the chair of Oriental languages at Leyden. Schultens published several works on various subjects connected with Biblical or Oriental literature. The principal are:- Commentarius in Librum Job, cum nova versione,' 2 vols. 4to, Leyden, 1737; Vetus et regia via Hebraïzandi contra novam et metaphysicam hodiernam,' 4to, Leyden, 1738; 'Origines Hebreæ,' 2 vols. 4to, Franeker, 1724-38. In these last two works Schultens upholds the doctrine that the Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldee are only the remains of a more ancient language taught to man by his Creator; and refutes the opinions of Gousset and his disciples, who maintained the divine origin of the Hebrew. 'Proverbia Salomonis cum versione integrâ et commentario,' 4to, Leyden, 1748; Monumenta vetustiora Arabiæ,' 4to, Leyden, 1740, or a collection of poetical fragments of the times preceding Mohammed, as preserved in the works of Nuwayri, Masúdí, Abú-l-fedá, &c., with a Latin translation and copious notes. He published also the Life of Saladin,' by Boháu-d-dín, in the original Arabic, with a Latin translation, and an excellent geographical index, folio, Leyden, 1755; a portion of the 'Makamát, or sessions of Hariri; and a new edition of Erpenius's Arabic Grammar, with numerous additions. A short account of the life and writings of Schultens may be read in the "Athenæ Frisiaca,' by Vriemoet.

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SCHULTENS, HENRY ALBERT, grandson of the preceding, was born at Herborn, February 15, 1749, at the time when his father (John Jacob) was professor of divinity at that place. He was educated at Leyden, where he applied himself with great diligence to the study of Hebrew and Arabic under his father and Everard Scheid, who then lodged at his house. He also studied the Greek and Latin classics under Hemsterhuis, Rhunkenius, and Walkenaar; and cultivated English literature, being remarkably fond of Pope, and an enthusiastic admirer of Shakspere. In 1722, when he was only in his twenty-third year, he published his 'Anthologia Sententiarum Arabicarum' (4to, Leyden), with a Latin translation and notes. Shortly after he visited England, for the purpose of consulting the Arabic manuscripts in the Bodleian Library, and resided for some time at Oxford as a gentlemancommoner of Wadham College. In May 1773 the university conferred on him the degree of M.A. by diploma. He also visited Cambridge, and made several corrections and additions to the catalogue of the Oriental manuscripts in the university library. During his stay in England, Schultens published his 'Specimen Proverbiorum Meidani ex versione Pocockiana' (4to, 1773), which he had transcribed while at Oxford from the original manuscript of Edward Pocock, preserved in the Bodleian. On his return to Holland, Schultens was appointed professor of Oriental languages in the academical school of Amsterdam

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where he remained for five years, until in December 1778 he was called to succeed his father in his chair, and in 1787 was elected rector of the university. At the expiration of his functions in 1788 he delivered his remarkable peroration, De Ingenio Arabum,' which was afterwards printed. In November 1792 he was attacked by a slow fever that terminated in a consumption, of which he died Angust 12, 1793, at the age of forty-four.

Besides his Anthologia' of Arabic sentences, and several articles in the Bibliotheca Critica,' edited by Wyttenbach (Amst., 1779-90), Professor Schultens wrote Pars versionis Arabicæ Libri Colaïlah wa Dimnah,' 4to, Leyden, 1786, or the Arabic translation of the Fables of Bidpay, or Pilpay, made by Abdalla Ibn Mokaffa. [PILPAY.] Meidanii Proverbiorum Arabicorum pars, Latinè cum notis,' 4to, Leyden, 1795. This work, which is different from that published in 1773, was not printed till after the death of the author, by the care of his friend Nicholas William Schröder. It contains only a portion of the proverbs of Meydani, of the whole of which Schultens had made a translation. 'De Finibus Litterarum Orientalium Proferendis,' 4to, Amst., 1774. 'De Studio Belgarum in Litteris Arabicis Excolendis,' Leyden, 1779. These are two inaugural orations read on the occasion of his taking possession of the chairs which he filled at Amsterdam and Leyden. He left also a Dutch translation of the Book of Job, which has never been printed. The life of Henry Albert Schultens, accompanied by his portrait, appeared in Wagenaar's collection, entitled Series Continuata Historia Batavæ,' part i., pp. 364-380.

SCHULTING, ANTONIUS, was born at Nymegen in Guelderland, in 1659. He received a learned education under Rycquius and Græ vius, and afterwards studied law at Leyden under Voet and under Noodt to whom he was related. After being employed as a teacher of law in his native province and also in Friesland, he was removed to the University of Leyden in 1713, where he became the colleague of Noodt. He died at Leyden in 1734. Schulting was a laborious student, and he had a right perception of the necessity of studying Roman law in its historical development. Besides some orations delivered on public occasions, he wrote 'Enarratio partis primæ Digestorum,' Leyden, 8vo, 1720; Thesium Controversarum juxta seriem Digestorum decades C., Leyden, 8vo, 1738; and 'Notæ ad Veteres Glossas Verborum Juris in Basilicis,' inserted in the third volume of the Thesaurus of Otto. But the work by which he is best known is the 'Jurisprudentia Vetus ante-Justinianea' (Lugd. Bat., 1717 and Lips., 1737), which contains the remains of the four books of the Institutiones' of Gaius, the Sententia Receptæ' of Paulus, the twenty-nine 'Tituli ex Corpore Ulpiani,' the fragments of the 'Codices Gregorianus et Hermogenianus,' the Mosaicarum et Romanarum Legum Collatio,' and some few other matters. Though this work has been superseded either altogether or in part, so far as regards the text, by the Jus Civile ante-Justinianeum,' &c., published at Berlin in 1815, by the 'Corpus Jur. Rom. ante-Justinian.,' &c., Bonn, 1835 and 1837, and by the various discoveries and labours of more recent jurists, it is still very valuable for the learned notes of Schulting and other scholars which accompany it.

*SCHULTZ, KARL HEINRICH, or as he is now called SCHULTZ SCHULTZENSTEIN, professor of medicine in the University of Berlin. He was born at Alt-Ruppin on the 8th of July, 1798. He was educated at the Gymnasium of Neu-Ruppin. He studied medicine and surgery at Berlin and graduated as Doctor of Medicine in 1821. In 1822 he became a private teacher in the university, and in 1825 he was made an extraordinary professor, and in 1825 an ordinary professor. He is distinguished for his researches in vegetable physiology more especially for the discovery of the laticiferous tissues in plants and the circulation of a fluid in them. His papers on this subject are very numerous, although recent botanists have been led to doubt the correctness of many of his conclusions. He has also written upon the nature of the blood and its changes and composition in disease. In his work entitled 'The Universal Doctrine of Disease' he has explained many of his peculiar views. He has written a work on homœopathy, in which he endeavours to show that this system is but the revival of the doctrine of Paracelsus. He has written also many other works on physiology and medicine.

SCHULTZE, ERNST CONRAD FRIEDRICH, a young German poet, no less remarkable for the enthusiasm of his character, and for the peculiar application of his genius, than for his genius itself. He was born at Celle, March 22nd 1789, and was so far from giving early indications of a studious disposition, that while at school he was considered exceedingly negligent and wayward, and impatient of restraint or order. Neither did he distinguish himself by diligence at the University of Göttingen, whither he proceeded in 1806; for though he gained the notice and friendship of Professor Bouterwek, by the superiority of his college exercises, and by the talent displayed in the poetical compositions he ventured to submit to his criticism, he benefited little by the public lectures he attended, even those on classical and modern literature. A year or two before going to the university he had indulged in reading romances of chivalry and legends of fairy fiction, of which he had met with an ample store in an old library to which be had access, and their influence is plainly perceptible in his productions. The first was a poem, composed by him while at Göttingen, on the story of Psyche, in which he seems to have proposed to himself

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