been known as distinct; and before they can be differentiated, each must have been apprehended as an object of thought.

II. All human thought consists of apprehension, differentiation and comprehension or integration.

By these processes men think on all subjects. If thought is the observation of a sensible object, it begins with apprehending what it is. I once heard Prof. Agassiz say that when he found an insect of a species new to him, he was accustomed to spend some hours in close inspection of it, and thus he got it so completely in his mind that he never failed afterwards to recognize it. This was his apprehension of it. He could then distinguish it from all other species by the properties peculiar to it, and could by resemblance assign it to its proper genus and species. The same are the processes in the farthest range and most complicated action of thought. In all thinking the mind follows this beaten track. In the most complicated processes of thought the mind can do no more than to apprehend, discriminate, and comprehend. It has but three questions to ask: What is it? What is it not? How is it related to other things in the unity of a harmonious whole? Thus the ancient Greek philosophy classified the objects of human inquiry: To d, tó Etepov, tó Ev-being, its difference, its unity.

When two or more objects have been apprehended and discriminated, the mind proceeds to cognize them in a larger unity or whole and in real relations not discovered at the first glance. This whole becomes a new unit of thought to be differentiated and integrated again. And this process the mind continues till it comprehends all material things in the unity of a Cosmos, and it and all spiritual reality in the unity of a rational system under the government of God.

All error in thinking must be in one or the other of these three processes; and thought should be carefully guarded in each. Error arises when the thinker does not clearly, correctly and adequately apprehend the object under consideration; or when he confounds it with that which differs; or when he integrates the discriminated realities in false and unreal relations, or in a partial and one-sided unity excluding realities and relations essential to the comprehensiveness and completeness of the thought.

III. Thought does not present to the mind the beings which are its objects, nor their differences and relations; it merely apprehends some reality which intuition presents, and under the regulation of the laws of thought traces out the differences actually existing between the apprehended objects and discovers the real relations by which they exist in unity. Thence it may proceed, beyond what is presented in intuition, to infer, according to the principles of reason, the existence of reality not actually observed and to determine its differences and rela

tions. This process we call reasoning; but it is only apprehending, differentiating and integrating under the regulative principles known by rational intuition.

The necessity of thought has been illustrated by comparing the undiscriminated content of intuition to light falling on the eye without shade or color, which would make sight as useless as it would be in total darkness; or by the supposition that every object was of the same shade of blue, which would destroy all knowledge of color.* But these analogies are misleading; for they seem to imply that thought creates the qualities, differences and relations of reality; whereas it only takes cognizance of them. If in the reality presented in intuition, there were no qualities, peculiarities and relations identifying and distinguishing the reality, thought would be forever unable to apprehend, distinguish and comprehend it.

IV. Thought, as thus far considered, has for its object beings, their differences and relations, and those complex unities and larger systems of beings which thought discovers. These may be either present in intuition or remembered. For we have seen that every process of knowledge which has duration involves memory.

There are also certain subsidiary objects of thought, necessary to the best prosecution of our thinking about these realities, yet deriving all their significance from the fact that they stand for them.

One class of these subsidiary objects of thought is the mind's own representations, not with memory of the objects represented, but present in consciousness simply as representations. These the mind apprehends, differentiates and integrates, forming ideal creations.

We can also attend to a being as it appears in a single property or act and distinguish it from or compare it with the being appearing in another property or act. This process is called abstraction. By abstracting single properties and acts and making them objects of attention, we are able to apprehend, differentiate and integrate them. It must be noticed however that the object of thought here is still a being, though attended to as appearing in a single property or act.

We also form logical concepts or general notions. The necessity for these is in the limitation of the human mind. If it were necessary in thinking to know every object in all its peculiarities as an individual, and to designate it by a particular name, the multiplicity of objects would overwhelm the mind and confound alike the power of expressing thought and the power of thinking. The mind, therefore, resorts to the expedient of grouping together in a concept or general notion indıviduals which have certain common qualities, disregarding qualities in

* Ulrici System der Logik, S. 65. Hobbes says, "Sentire semper idem et non sentire, ad idem recidunt." "To perceive always the same is all one with not perceiving anything." Physica, iv. 25; opera, I. 321, Molesworth Ed.

which the individuals differ and designating the concept by a symbol oral or written. We as it were bind these individuals in bundles, labeling each bundle; then we can handle them and pass them from hand to hand. Man's power of using general notions and of designating them by language whereby he is able to lift himself above the multiplicity of objects which confuses him, master it with knowledge, and communicate, perpetuate and accumulate his knowledge, demonstrates his pre-eminent greatness. Yet in another view the necessity of resorting to this expedient reveals his limitations. God alone knows all objects severally in their individuality and "calleth them all by name.'

13. Thought Distinguished by its Objects.

Thought may be distinguished by its objects into three kinds: Abstract or Formal; Concrete or Realistic; and Creative. In each case thought consists of apprehension, differentiation and integration; the distinction is only in the object on which the thought is employed.

I. Formal or abstract thought has for its object a logical concept or general notion designated by a general name, and consists principally in the analysis and distribution of the content of the general notion by means of the syllogism.

II. Thought is concrete or realistic when its object is a particular reality presented in consciousness or remembered. In concrete thought general notions and words are used, but the object to which the thought is directed is a concrete reality presented at the time or remembered. For example, when a chemist is investigating the properties of oxygen, he has some particular portion of oxygen before him and the judgment in which he affirms the result of his observation and experiment affirms some particular action of that particular portion of oxygen. When a botanist examines a plant or a zoologist an animal, his thought is upon the particular specimen before him. After examining many specimens and finding the same property common to them all, he is able by induction to predicate that property of all individuals of the kind. But in every case the object of his investigation is not a general notion designated by a word, but is the concrete reality itself.

Some of the processes of concrete thought are Observation and Experiment, Classification, Co-ordination in invariable sequences or laws of nature, Colligation of facts, Induction, Deduction, Verification, Interpretation and Vindication of facts to the Reason and Systemization. Deduction, as it appears in concrete thought, consists of inferring effects from a known cause, particulars from a known universal principle or law and mathematical truths from the forms of space and number.

III. Thought is called Creative when its object is a mental representation.

Creative thought is the reflex action of the mind on its own representations, apprehending them, distinguishing them from each other and comprehending them in a complex whole. The primitive process is the same as in formal and realistic thought; but as the objects of thought are the mind's own representations, the results can be only mental representations; just as in formal thinking, since the objects of thought are notions and words, the result of the thinking can be only notions and words. The power of creative thought is the Imagination.

1. In its lower forms creative thought is fantastic; that is, it is not regulated by rational truths and laws. In this lower action it may be called fancy or phantasy rather than imagination. A centaur, or a tree with leaves of silver, blossoms of precious stones and fruit of gold are fantastic creations. The creations of fancy are sometimes pleasing. I recall, as an example, a pretty French picture of autumn, in which cherubs are putting out the flowers with extinguishers. Another example is Rückert's "Der Himmel ein Brief," in which he compares the sky to a letter of which the sun is the seal; when night takes off the seal, we read in a thousand starry letters that God is love.

2. In its higher form, the imagination creates ideals accordant with rational truth and law, in which it embodies its highest conceptions of the perfect. The creations of imagination differ from fantastic combinations in that they express the deepest truth and reality; they differ from imitation in that they begin with ideals and proceed to express them outwardly, while imitation begins with the outward object and tries empirically to copy it. Imagination seizes its object by the heart and works from within outwards.

3. While the imagination cannot of itself carry knowledge beyond its own representations it takes the lead in every sphere of intellectual activity. Imagination creates the ideals which the artist expresses on the canvas and in the marble, in words and music, in buildings and parks.

It creates the ideals of mechanical inventions. When Hargreaves upset his wife's spinning-wheel, he saw in the revolving vertical spindle the ideal of the spinning-jenny. Watt saw the steam-engine in the uplifting of the lid of a tea-kettle. Galileo saw the principle of the pendulum in a swinging chandelier.

It takes the lead in scientific discovery. When it flashed on Newton, as by an inspiration, that the law according to which apples fall from a tree is the law of the solar system, he created in his thought a solar system regulated by that law. Kepler created in thought the orbit of Mars; in fact tried nineteen hypotheses before he hit the geometrical figure in which all the known facts as to the positions of the planet could be colligated. Harvey, seeing the valves in the veins, saw the circulation of the blood, creating in imagination the circulatory system of the body.

The creative faculty is equally essential in criticism. The critic must penetrate through the work of art to the ideal which it expresses. He stands before the finished work, as an explorer and discoverer stands before the complicated realities of nature. He must create in his own imagination the ideal of the work and the plan of the artist in expressing it, and thus find its intended unity and significance before he can criticize its execution. It takes a genius to understand a genius. It takes a Goethe to reveal a Shakespeare, an Addison to reveal a Milton.

The creative power is equally essential in teaching and in all communication of thought. The ideal, the whole created in imagination according to its real principles, must be presented and grasped before the learner can analyze it into its elements or construct its scattered elements into the real whole.

Even in practical affairs the imagination is equally pre-eminent, whether in a statesman constructing the plan of a wise administration of government, or in a general planning a campaign, or in a merchant or manufacturer planning his business.

In every sphere of human thought it is the leading power of the intellect, the queen of all the faculties of intelligence. In its higher inventions and discoveries it is "the vision and faculty divine" of genius. Where a common mind sees a kettle lid lifted, a spinningwheel thrown over, a chandelier swinging, a genius sees the application of a power which changes the history of the world. Where a common mind sees only a mass of intricate and confused facts, the genius sees the principle and law by which they are constructed into the unity of a system. The facts lie heaped in tables of figures and collections of books. It is only to the Orphic music of a master-thought that they move and arrange themselves in the harmony and beauty of a scientific system. This is the effect of the imagination, the creative power of the mind:

"Which in truth

Is but another name for absolute power,
And clearest insight, amplitude of mind,
And reason in her most exalted mood."

IV. Scientific investigation is principally by concrete thought, though necessarily supplemented by the abstract and the creative. The imagination creates hypotheses and suggests lines of investigation; but it cannot of itself go beyond its own representations. Formal or abstract thought is indispensable because we must use words and general notions; but it is inadequate.

1. Formal or abstract thought is inadequate on account of the thinker's tendency to stop in the general notions and words. As its