into something worse, lay hold on such defects as border on excellences, and become tumid instead of great, weak instead of concise, rash instead of bold, licentious instead of exuberant, tripping instead of dignified, careless instead of simple. 17. Accordingly, those who have produced something dry and inane, in a rough and inelegant dress, fancy them selves equal to the ancients; those who reject embellishment of language or thought, compare themselves, forsooth, to the Attic writers; those who become obscure by curtailing their periods, excel Sallust and Thucydides; the dry and jejune rival Pollio; and the dull and languid, if they but express themselves in a long period, declare that Cicero would have spoken just like themselves. 18. I have known some, indeed, who thought that they had admirably represented the divine orator's manner in their speeches, when they had put at the end of a period esse videatur.* The first consideration, therefore, for the student, is, that he should understand what he proposes to imitate, and have a thorough conception why it is excellent. 19. Next, in entering on his task, let him consult his own powers, (for some things are inimitable by those whose natural weakness is not sufficient for attaining them, or whose natural inclination is repugnant to them,) lest he who has but a feeble capacity, should attempt only what is arduous and rough, or lest he who has great but rude talent, should waste his strength in the study of refinement, and fail of attaining the elegance of which he is desirous; for nothing is more ungraceful than to treat of delicate subjects with harshness. 20. I did not suppose, indeed, that by the master whom I instructed in my second book,† those things only were to be taught, to which he might see his pupils severally adapted by nature; he ought to improve whatever good qualities he finds in them; to supply, as far as he can, what is deficient; to correct some things and to alter others; for he is the director and regulator of the minds of others; to mould his own nature may be more difficult. 21. But not even such a teacher, however he may wish everything that is right to be found in the highest excellence in his pupils, will labour to any purpose in that to which he shall see that nature is opposed. There is another thing also to be avoided, a matter in which many err; we must not suppose that poets and historians are | * IX. 4, 73. + C. 8. to be the objects of our imitation in oratorical composition, or orators and declaimers in poetry or history. 22. Every species of writing has its own prescribed law; each its own appropriate dress; for comedy does not strut in tragic buskins, nor does tragedy step along in the slipper of comedy: yet all eloquence has something in common; and let us look on that which is common as what we must imitate. 23. On those who have devoted themselves to one particular kind of style, there generally attends this inconvenience, that if, for example, the roughness of some writer has taken their fancy, they cannot divest themselves of it in pleading those causes which are of a quiet and subdued nature; or if a simple and pleasing manner has attracted them, they become unequal to the weight of their subject in complex and difficult causes; when not only the nature of one cause is different from that of another, but the nature of one part of a cause differs from that of another part, and some portions are to be delivered gently, others roughly, some in a vehement, others in an easy tone, some for the purpose of informing the hearer, others with a view to excite his feelings; all which require a different and distinct style. 24. I should not, therefore, advise a student to devote himself entirely to any particular author, so as to imitate him in all respects. Of all the Greek orators Demosthenes is by far the most excellent; yet others, on some occasions, may have expressed themselves better; and he himself has expressed many things better on some occasions than on others. But he who deserves to be imitated most, is not therefore the only author to be imitated. 25. "What then?" the reader may ask, "is it not sufficient to speak on every subject as Cicero spoke ?" To me, assuredly, it would be sufficient, if I could attain all his excellences. Yet what disadvantage would it be to assume, on some occasions, the energy of Cæsar, the asperity of Cælius, the accuracy of Pollio, the judgment of Calvus? 26. For besides that it is the part of a judicious student to make, if he can, whatever is excellent in each author his own, it is also to be considered, that if, in a matter of such difficulty as imitation, we fix our attention only on one author, scarcely any one portion of his excellence will allow us to become masters of it. Accordingly, since it is almost denied to human ability to copy fully the pattern wnich we have chosen, let us set before our eyes the excellences of several, that different qualities from different writers may fix themselves in our minds, and that we may adopt, for any sub ject, the style which is most suitable to it. 27. But let imitation (for I must frequently repeat the same precept*) not be confined merely to words. We ought to contemplate what propriety was observed by those great men, with regard to things and persons; what judgment, what arrangement, and how everything, even what seems intended only to please, was directed to the attainment of success in their cause. Let us notice what is done in their exordium; how skilful and varied is their statement of facts; how great is their ability in proving and refuting; how consummate was their skill in exciting every species of emotion; and how even the applause which they gained from the public was turned to the advantage of their cause; applause which is most honourable when it follows unsolicited, not when it is anxiously courted. If we gain a thorough conception of all these matters, we shall then be such imitators as we ought to be. 28. But he who shall add to these borrowed qualities excellences of his own, so as to supply what is deficient in his models, and to retrench what is redundant, will be the complete orator whom we desire to see; and such an orator ought now surely to be formed, when so many more examples of eloquence exist than fell to the lot of those who have hitherto been considered the best orators; for to them will belong the praise, not only of surpassing those who preceded them, but of instructing those who followed. CHAPTER III. Of writing; utility of it, § 1-4. How, and what, we should write; necessity of correction, 5-14. Judicious exercise requisite, 15— 18. Objections to dictation, 19-21. A retired place desirable for composition; of writing at night, 22-27. But retirement cannot always be secured, and we must do our best in the circumstances in which we find ourselves, 28-30. Further remarks, 31 -33. 1. SUCH, then, are the means of improvement to be derived + Comp. sect. 13, 16. + Who are named in the preceding paragraph. from external sources. But of those which we must secure for ourselves, practice in writing, which is attended with the most labour, is attended also with the greatest advantage. Nor has Cicero without reason called the pen the best modeller and teacher of eloquence; and Fy putting that opinion into the mouth of Lucius Crassus, in his Dialogues on the character of the Orator,* he has united his own judgment to the authority of that eminent speaker. 2. We must write, therefore, as carefully, and as much, as we can; for as the ground, by being dug to a great depth, becomes more fitted for fructifying and nourishing seeds, so improvement of the mind, acquired from more than mere superficial cultivation, pours forth the fruits of study in richer abundance, and retains them with greater fidelity. For without this preeaution, the very faculty of speaking extempore will but furnish us with empty loquacity, and words born on the lips.‡ 3. In writing are the roots, in writing are the foundations of eloquence; by writing resources are stored up, as it were, in a sacred repository, whence they may be drawn forth for sudden emergencies, or as circumstances require. Let us above all things get strength, which may suffice for the labour of our contests, and may not be exhausted by use. 4. Nature has herself appointed that nothing great is to be accomplished quickly, and has ordained that difficulty should precede every work of excellence ;§ and she has even made it a law with * De Orat. i. 33. + Sine hac conscientiâ.] Hæc conscientia is nothing else but hujus rei conscientia; and hæc res is insumptus in scribendo labor. He only, who, while he speaks extempore, can support himself with the consciousness of having previously written much for the sake of exercise, will stand forth to plead with self-respect and without inconsiderateness. Spalding. "Nisi quis sibi conscius sit se multum in scribendo laborem insumpsisse." Rollin. Gesner would read constantiâ, by which the passage would surely not be improved. I cannot say that "precau tion," which I have given in the text, is a translation of conscientia, but I have borrowed it, as a pretty fair equivalent for it, from Gedoyn's version of the passage: "Si notre propre conscience ne nous répond de cette précaution." ‡În labris nascentia.] Not coming from the depths of the understanding. § In allusion, probably, to the line of Hesiod, Op. et Di. i. 287, Where Virtue dwells, the gods have plac'd before regard to gestation, that the larger animals are retained longer in the womb of the parent. 5. But as two questions arise from this subject, how, and what we ought principally to write, I shall consider them both in this order. Let our pen be at first slow, provided that it be accurate. Let us search for what is best, and not allow ourselves to be readily pleased with whatever presents itself; let · judgment be applied to our thoughts, and skill in arrangement to such of them as the judgment sanctions; for we must make a selection from our thoughts and words, and the weight of each must be carefully estimated; and then must follow the art of collocation, and the rhythm of our phrases must be tried in every possible way, since any word must not take its position just as it offers itself. 6. That we may acquire this accomplishment with the more precision, we must frequently repeat the last words of what we have just written; for besides that by this means what follows is better connected with what precedes, the ardour of thought, which has cooled by the delay of writing, recovers its strength anew, and, by going again over the ground, acquires new force; as is the case, we see, in a contest at leaping; men run over a certain portion of ground that they may take a longer spring, and be carried with the utmost velocity to the other part on which they aim at alighting; as in hurling a javelin, too, we draw back the arm; and, when going to shoot an arrow, we pull back the bowstring. 7. At times, however, if a gale bear us on, we may spread our sails to it, provided that the licence which we allow ourselves does not lead us astray; for all our thoughts please us at the time of their birth; otherwise they would not be committed to writing. But let us have recourse to our judgment, and revise the fruit of our facility, which is always to be regarded with suspicion. 8. Thus we learn that Sallust wrote; and his labour, indeed, is shown in his productions. That Virgil wrote very few verses in a day Varus bears testimony.* 9. With the speaker, indeed, the case is different; and I, therefore, enjoin this delay and solicitude only at the commencement of his course; for we must make it first of all our object, and must attain that object, to write as well as we can; practice will bring celerity; thoughts, by degrees, will present them * See Aul. Gell. xvii. 10, where it is related that Virgil used to say of himself, that he licked his verses into shape as bears lick their cubs. |