first, of which the senioribus being expressed, constituted no part, there elders could not have been implied in the conclericis. If they were not of the clergy, they were not officers; because had they been such, they must have been treated with disrespect, either by a total omission, or the including of them in the plebi. If they were not officers, the term senioribus was taken appellatively, in that letter in which it occurs, and meant nothing more than the aged men of the congregation, who have been often thus distinguished, because of their experience and gravity; but are nevertheless really a part of the plebs, or common people. This interpretation is also corroborated by the circumstance, that senioribus not presbyteris, is used; the latter being the ordinary official term, and the other generally appellative; a discrimination, which, though neglected by Tertullian and Cyprian, is carefully followed by Optatus and Augustine, who observes "omnis senex etiam presbyter, non omnis presbyter etiam senex."* Every old man is an elder, not every elder also an old man. These seniores, who sometimes occur in the Christian writers of Africa, are in no instance to be deemed of the clergy, they administered no ordinances, never sat as presbyters, and neither excommunicated nor restored, but were placed after the deacons, and consulted merely for their knowledge and prudence, or introduced because of their interest. The

* Tom. IV. 99.

+ Vitringa (de Synag. 115.) has written fully on this subject, and denies that

the seniores plebis were either πρεσβύτεροι της εκκλησίας, οι προεσιωτες πρεσβύτεροι; and says they were merely γερονίες, and no part of the ecclesiastical body to whom the care and the ministry of the church were delivered. Casanbon distinguishes between seniores urbium and seniores ecclesiacum; these last, he says were quadamtenus ecclesiastici, yet laici and guar

captions of these letters of Augustine are conclusive proof, that the seniores of whom he speaks were not clerical, and so not even on an equality with deacons, and consequently upon no construction, the πρωεσίωλες ruling presbyters of the new testament, or any officers in the gospel churches. That these were never such in the churches of Africa, may be fairly also inferred from the omission of them, both in the enumeration of the officers of a particular church, and in the catalogues given in the councils of Carthage, where they are thus enumerated; bishop, presbyter, deacon, subdeacon, acolyth, exorcist, reader, door-keeper, and chorister. If such a class of officers as seniores had existed next after the deacons, they must have been enumerated in such catalogues, but nothing of the kind has occurred. Augustine describes the orders of his day in Africa, which no one better knew, in the same manner.‡ "A higher order contains in and with itself that which is less, for the presbyter performs also the duty of the deacon, and of the exorcist and of the

diani templorum. Bingham (lib. II. c. 19.) considers the seniores of Augustine, Optatus, and the papers appended to the latter, to have been men, who, for their years and faithfulness, were entrusted to take care of the goods of the church, but neither lay elders nor πρεσβύτεροι. But modern opinions are inadmissible evidence.

* Contra Cresconium. Lib. III. c. 29. + Concil. Carthag. IV. "Episcopus, presbyter, diaconus, subdiaconus, acolythus, exorcista, lector, ostarius, psalmis

ta."

‡ "Major enim ordo intra se et apud se habet et minorem, presbyter, enim diaconi agit officium et exorcistæ et lectoris.

Presbyterum autem intelligi episcopum, theum, quem ordinavit presbyterum, instruit qualem debeat creare episcopuno. Quid est enim episcopus, nisi primus presbyter, hoc est summus sacerdos. Denique non aliter quam compresoyteros hic vocat, et consacerdotos suos, numquid et ministros condiaconos suos dicit episcopus." Tom. IV. 780.

reader. Also that a presbyter is to to be understood to be a bishop, the Apostle Paul proves, when he instructs Timothy, whom he had ordained a presbyter, what kind of a bishop he ought to create; for what is a bishop but a primus presbyter, that is a high priest, and he calls them no otherwise than his co-presbyters and co-priests, and may not the bishop also call his deacons his fellow-servants?" But he had immediately before professed not to know by what law, by what custom or what example "the deacons were made equal with presbyters," " presbyteris ministros ipsorum pares," "as if deacons were ordained from presbyters, and not presbyters from deacons."

The expression peregrinus presbyter et seniores ecclesiæ musticanæ regionis, &c.* have been alleged in proof, that the church in the city Mustica had not only a preaching presbyter, but lay elders also; and consequently that here is at least one example of the existence of elders, such as are formed in some of the presbyterian churches. But this semblance of an example of lay elders in an ancient church, is too slight to sustain an examination. The distinction made between Peregrinus and the seniores ecclesiæ was, that he was a presbyter, and they were not presbyters: if not presbyters, consequently not the ruling elders of the New Testament, for these were presbyters, προεστωτες πρεσβύτεροι. Being neither presbyters nor deacons, and no intermediate grade ever having existed in the church, these Seniores consequently had no office. Also if they were not presbyters, the word seniores must necessarily be understood in its appellative sense, old men; and the whole expression seniores ecclesiæ can mean no more than the aged men of the church. This passage describes the prosecution of a petition before

the tribunal of the prætor at Carthage by the presbyter Peregrinus, and the senior members of the church at Mustica, against Felicianus, who detained possession against the sentence of an ecclesiastical assembly, which pronounced him a heretic. That the aged members, in whom the possession at least, and it may be the legal title of the church had been vested, should join with a presbyter in such petition was naturally to be expected; and no more is here expressed.

The state of the church in North Africa, excluding Egypt and Cyrenaica was in the days of Augustine very different from that of other countries. As every city had its bishop, so every parish was a diocese, and every pastor a bishop. The episcopate of Carthage had the superintendence of Africa, and the bishop of Hippo Regius, instead of Cirta, (Constantina) for the most part next to the Metropolitan of Carthage, had precedence over those in Numidia; but in the Mauritanias, and generally in Africa, this depended upon seniority in office, and not upon the civil dignity of the city, as in other parts of the empire.

The greatest respect was paid to old men both among Jews and Gentiles. Polybius observes that among the Lacedæmonians under the regal authority all things which respected the commonwealth were transacted by and with the concurrence of the old men.* The Christian churches also adopted a wise conformity to such usages. To be consulted was the claim of the aged, when their interests were concerned, in religious as well as in civil matters of importance. Thus in the "Gesta Cæciliani et Felicis," usually bound up with Optatus, mention is made of epis

* Γεροντες-δια ῶν και μεῖα ῶν πανία χειρίζεται τα καλα την πολιτείαν. Ροlyb. hist. lib. vi. p. 681.

copi, presbyteri, diaconi, and seniores, seniores meaning not officers, but aged men of the common people. Nevertheless these seniores, though divided from presbyters by the intervention of deacons, have been brought as examples and proofs of lay elders, and identified with those, who are in the New Testament denominated ruling presbyters; but who really were and have been shown by many testimonies to have been those presbyters, who presided, one in every church, and who, after the days of the Apostles, received by custom gradually the power, name and dignity of bishops. The mistake is however exposed by what follows; "adhibete conclericos et seniores plebis, ecclesiasticos viros." Call the clergy of every sort, and the seniores of the common people, who are members of the church. Here conclericos includes the presbyters, dea cons and subdeacons, whilst the seniores are plebes, or common people.*

Synesius was chosen and ordained bishop of Ptolemais in Peutapolis, when a layman. He wrote in elegant style, but rather as a philosopher than a divine. His discourse delivered A. D. 398 before the emperor Arcadius, and several epistles written in the first of the following century, still remain in Greek, his own language, Cyrene his native city having been coloni

zed from Greece. No lay presbyters appear in the volume of his works. He distributes the officers of the church into the Levite, the presbyter, and the bishop, λευίτης, πρεσβύτερος και επισκοπος.* The latter of whom he denominates the priest of a city, his office a priesthood ιεροσύνηνt and speaks of the election of a bishop, αιρέσεως επίσκοπου and of the imposition of the hands whereby the party is manifested a presbyter, χειρι πρεσβύτερος απεδεδεικ70. His representations accord with the established order of the ecclesiastic administration of his day, and shows that among the Greek Christians in Africa, the church was governed at that period, according to the canons of the council of Nice.

Severus, of the Sulpician family, a presbyter of Agen on the Garonne in France, wrote an outline of history, sacred, Jewish, and Christian, from the creation unto the end of the fourth century; the life of Martinus; three epistles, and three dialogues; and is supposed to have died about A. D. 420. His style discovers advantages in his education. His judgment of characters and historical facts might have escaped censure, had his credulity in Monkish legends known any bounds. Speaking of the military guard, directed by the emperor Hadrian to be constantly kept at Jerusalem, he observes, that until that period, "the church had no priest at Jerusalem, except of the circumcision," and that "then first, Mark of Gentile extraction was made their bishop."* Priests, Le

* Synesii opera, p. 203. Epist. 58.
+ ὁ ιερευς της πολεως. Ibid. p. 198.

† p. 222.

ὁ της σουχειρος. p. 223.

|| p. 222.

"Hierosolyme non nisi ex circumcisione habebat ecclesia sacerdotem"-"tum primum Marcus ex gentibus apud Hierosolymam episcopus fuit." Sulpicii Severi sac. histor. Lib. II. S. 45. p. 364, 365.

vites, altars, sacrifices and other words proper to Jewish and Pagan worship were not introduced till after the days of the Apostles, into the Christian church; and sacerdos, here promiscuously used with episcopus, at its first introduction designated only the presbyter, which the occasional insertion summus, by this writer, to distinguish the bishop, still viewed as the primus presbyter, plainly evinces.

When comparing the state of the Christian church in the time of the ten years persecution, under Diocletian and Maximinus, he observes, that martyrdoms were then much more eagerly sought by glorious deaths, than episcopal sees are now coveted by depraved ambition,* clear evidence of the moral declension of the church in a single age after the establishment by Constantine of that episcopal government, which had been introduced by custom, founded in the expediency described by Jerom.

a

In the history of his own times, he mentions the fact, that Priscilianus, though a layman, was made bishop of Abila. "Priscilianus etiam laicum episcopum in Labinensi (abilensi apud Hieron,) oppido constinunt."† As such he was accredited by the emperor, nor was this objected against him by the orthodox. In the writings of Sulpicius there is mention of bishops, presbyters, archdeacons, deacons, subdeacons, readers, exorcists, but not a solitary instance of any such office as that of a presby ter, who was a layman.

Synesius resided on the east side of North Africa, Sulpicius in the west of Europe; the former under the government of the Greeks, the latter that of the Romans; the first was a gentleman of estate, the oth

er a nobleman; the one a philosopher, the other an historian; and when converted, the former a bishop, the latter a presbyter; both were acquainted with the government of the Christian church, and both have recorded their views; yet neither a word, nor a hint has appeared in the works of either concerning lay presbyters, or any such officer in the Christian church. J. P. W.

THE DIVINE FORBEARANCE MADE AN

OCCASION OF SINNING:

A SERMON.

ECCLESIASTES VIII. 11.-Because sentense against an evil work is not executed speedily, therefore the heart of the sons of men is fully set in them to do evil.

In the world of despair, sentence against an evil work is executed speedily. There judgment does not linger; punishment is not delayed for a moment. Transgression and misery go hand in hand; every sin recoils directly upon the sinner, every rebellious thought or wish which is breathed out against Him who sits upon the throne, comes back with instant reaction upon the guilty soul. There too sin is not only punished directly, but adequately. There it receives its full measure of woe. The threatenings of God there, are carried into full execution. No mercy beams from the throne of heaven; and when the miserable outcast in despair craves some alleviation of his suffering, though it be of the slightest worth, though it be only one drop of water, justice lifts its voice against him; Remember that thou in thy life-time receivedst thy good things. When the soul goes to that world of misery, it leaves all happiness behind and enters on an endless career of rebellion and anguish, blasphemy and lamentation. There one evil work follows another in rapid succession, and sentence against every one of them

of Es

19:

is executed speedily. In a word there is instant and perfect retribution.

But in this world it is not so. Here sentence against an evil work is not executed speedily. Sin is not directly followed by appropriate punishment; nay, it is often followed by positive pleasure, and as it respects external circumstances it is often as prosperous as holiness. Here the sun rises on the evil and on the good-the rain descends on the just and on the unjust. A pious course of conduct is doubtless attended with higher satisfaction, and as a general thing with more outward prosperity, than the opposite course; still we witness nothing in this world like perfect retribution. Sometimes wickedness triumphs while goodness is depressed. Some times we see the irreligious man encircled with all the splendors of rank and affluence, clothed in purple and fine linen, and faring sumptuously every day, while the man of God lies a distressed beggar at his gate. In this world a man may live for a long course of years, and that too while his moral feelings and affections are all in direct opposition to the claims of God's law and gospel, and yet lead what would be called on the whole a happy life.

Now why is such a thing permitted to take place under the government of God? Has the moral Governor of the universe ceased to regard the distinction between holiness and sin in this part of his dominions; has he ceased to love the one and abhor the other? No; he declares, 'I love them that love me;' while on the other hand it is said, God is angry with the wicked every day. Why then is not his anger expressed? Is he prevented from doing this by some other power? No; for he is almighty and none can stay his hand. Has he then forgotten the promises and threatenings he has made to men?

or has he become negligent about

their fulfilment? The Lord is not slack concerning his promise as some men count slackness; but is long-suffering to usward, not willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repentance. This explains the whole mystery. God is in Christ reconciling the world to himself-endeavouring by the operations of his providence and the calls of his grace, to bring men to repentance. For this purpose he allows them a state of probation, suspends for a time the execution of the penalty of the broken law, is long-suffering towards them, forbears to punish them as they deserve. He holds up the sword of justice and does not let it fall upon the sinner that he may have an opportunity to repent. O the depth of the riches of the goodness of God!

But how, we ask, is his goodness treated by men? Do they seize with gladness this opportunity for making their peace with God. Are they filling up the few golden days of their probation with efforts to secure their everlasting welfare? Ah no; -because sentence against an evil work is not executed speedily, therefore the heart of the sons of men is fully set in them to do evil. Shocking perversion of the mercy of God! Men emboldened in sin by the very circumstance which should lead them to repentance!-a most gloomy fact in the moral history of man, and which he may be slow to admit; but it is a fact, however, plainly brought to view in the Bible, and confirmed by every day's experi

ence.

one

God has sent forth from his throne the most alarming threatenings against sin. His wrath is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness, and is to be executed upon the wicked at death. Most men who read the Bible at all, and receive it as the word of God, admit this. They admit that every one who leaves this world an un-