this, he went to Paul, and was with the apostle when he wrote his Second Epistle to the Corinthians. And with Paul may he have been at the interview with the Ephesian elders, and, as a representative of the apostle, remained with the church over which they presided.

The details into which we have gone, show that there was time sufficient for the movements assigned to Timothy. Of his visit to Macedonia and return to Ephesus, before the departure of Paul, we cannot speak positively, because the indications of time in the Acts are here very vague (Acts xix. 20-22); but between the time of Paul's quitting Ephesus and the ensuing November, there were three months in which Timothy might set in order the church in that place, and two for his journey to his father in the faith. If, indeed, we allow time for Timothy to receive the letter after Paul's departure, we shall then not have many weeks in which Timothy could execute his master's instructions. As, however, the evils which Paul wished to cure were of a pressing nature, and were known to him when he left Ephesus, we may reasonably think that he took the first moment of leisure in order to impress on the mind of Timothy the great purposes for which he had been left behind Nor is it unlikely, considering the disturbed state of the city when Paul left it, that Timothy may have found it difficult to maintain himself there at that time for longer than some three months. It may be an indication that Ephesus was even a year afterwards not free from agitation and peril, at least to Paul, that the apostle, when on his road to Jerusalem, instead of repairing thither, met the elders of the church at Miletus. It confirms the opinion that the letter was written shortly after Paul's departure, that Hug fixes Whitsuntide (A. D. 59) as the time of its composition.

The whole of these views, however, have but an insufficient historical basis. What is certain in the literary history of the New Testament is not augmented and confirmed, but invalidated and rendered suspicious, by mixing and confounding with it probable combinations and plausible conjectures. If Providence has curtailed our knowledge, we should bow in modest acquiescence, and not irreverently attempt to fill up the chasms by inflated bubbles or harsh dogmatism.

Improper steps of this kind have produced a natural reaction, and led some to deny the authenticity of both Paul's letters to Timothy. In this step they have found their chief support in the defects of our historical documents.

If, however, we carefully look into the substance of the letter now before us, we shall find sufficient reason to hold fast to its Pauline origin. The great aim of the Epistle, namely, to assist Timothy in giving a

proper organisation to the church, was one which was likely to be entertained by Paul; who, though he expected the speedy appearance of Jesus, yet did he earnestly desire to collect a people prepared for the Lord, and for that purpose knew that some means of personal influence and instruction were indispensable. The necessity was the greater in Ephesus, because of the disturbances which had necessitated his own departure and threatened the very existence of the church, which was likely to stand firm against pressure and violence from without only if made into an organised, compact, and well-working corporation. The danger was the greater, and the need of Paul's advice and the presence of Timothy the greater too, because falsities and collisions assailed and troubled the community.

If, moreover, the character of those errors and rivalries is studied, they will be found to be essentially the same with those which from other sources are known to have prevailed in Asia Minor, especially at Ephesus. See EPHESUS, EPHESIANS, PHILOSOPHY.

The doctrinal teachings of the Epistle are also Pauline. It has, indeed, been said (Credner, Das Neue Testament, ii. 110) that the statement in 1 Tim. ii. 4, that God desires the salvation of all, is contrary to Paul's general view; though the same doctrine is expressly, and even more strongly, set forth in Rom. ii. 6, seq.; v. 12, seq.; x. 12; xi. 32. 1 Cor. xv. 21, seq. It would be easy to exhibit other correspondences in doctrine between this letter and acknowledged writings of Paul, whose earnest, lofty, glowing, yet considerate spirit, appears in it in features too numerous and too marked to be mistaken.

The place from which this First Epistle to Timothy was written cannot be determined, but it confirms the view we have given to find that it presents at its close no greetings. If written on his journey, or in a moment snatched from active labour in the less known parts of Europe, its author would have no time for any thing save those instructions which were all-important, and the necessity for which pressed heavily on the writer's mind; nor would Paul find in persons around him points of connection between his then condition and the one that he had left at Ephesus. Where he was, there were probably few or none who had personal friends in the Ephesian church to whom Paul might transmit greetings; and he him. self was probably too uncertain of the faithfulness of its members to know what tone, in the actual circumstances, he should take towards persons whom he might otherwise have saluted as beloved brethren. Besides, inasmuch as the Epistle was addressed by an individual to an individual, there was no need for any recognition of others, especially as the communication was essentially of a private nature, containing, as it did, express

sion confirms the view given in the previous article, and causes the two letters to give and receive aid in the establishment of their Pauline origin, and the ascertaining of the person to whom they were sent.

We are also confirmed in the opinion that the letter was written by Paul to Timothy by the fact, learnt in our minute inquiry into these names, that so far as our know. ledge extends, every thing accords with that opinion. The persons mentioned are persons with whom Paul and Timothy were acquainted; and most of them were persons whom the history would lead us to expect in the case. And when attention is given to the cursory manner in which these names are let drop from the writer's pen, it is very difficult to conceive that we have here to do with any thing but a reality.

The letter bears traces of an anxious mind. Paul had been before his judges, and there stood alone. Some had proved faithless, others had become prudent. A second hearing had probably been less afflictive. Still, danger and death seemed near. The aged confessor wanted one on whom he could rely. He therefore writes to Timothy, urging him to come, and, if he could, to come before winter (2 Tim. iv. 21). Hence the Epistle wears the appearance of having been composed a short time before Paul's imprisonment at Rome issued in his martyrdom. As such, it is specially interesting; and as such, its tone of affectionate earnestness and concern is natural and becoming.

The authenticity of this Epistle has been questioned and denied without sufficient grounds. Though we are disposed to assign a somewhat later date for its composition than Lardner, namely A. D. 61, we concur in these his words: 'It appears to me very probable that this Second Epistle to Timothy was written at Rcme, when Paul was sent thither by Festus. And I cannot but think that this ought to be an allowed and determined point.' It is first mentioned by Irenæus (born at Smyrna in the early part of the second century), who, speaking of Linus, says he is the same as Paul mentions in those (well-known) Epistles to Timothy.'

TIN (L. stannum?) was known to the Hebrews (Numb. xxxi. 22. Ezek. xxii. 18, 20) under the name of bedel, a word which some say comes from a root meaning 'to separate;' because, among other mysterious qualities, tin was held to have the power of separating mixed metals. Tin, in Ezek. xxii. 18 (comp. Isaiah i. 25), is mentioned among inferior metals, as if accounted dross,' where also is implied the fact of its entering into amalgams. Such a compound was produced when tin was mixed with copper, forming, not brass, which is copper and zinc, but bronze-a metal employed before iron, and from its being hard and capable of receiving an edge, serviceable in the fabrication

of arms. Bronze was also used in the formation of mirrors. Tin (in Greek, kassiteris) was in very remote ages procured from the Cassiterides, or Scilly Isles (and Cornwall), by Phoenician navigators and their dependencies, and sent eastward, through Syria and Palmyra, to distant parts of Asia (Craik's History of British Commerce,' i. chap. i.). Wilkinson, in his instructive, interesting, and trustworthy work, The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,' says (iii. 253), The skill of the Egyptians in compounding metals is abundantly proved by the vases, mirrors, arms, and implements of bronze discovered at Thebes and other parts of Egypt; and the numerous methods they adopted for varying the composition of bronze by a judicious mixture of alloys, are shown in many qualities of the metal. They had even the secret of giving to bronze blades a certain degree of elasticity, as may be seen in the dagger of the Berlin Museum. Another remarkable feature in their bronze is the resistance it offers to the effect of the atmosphere; some continuing smooth and bright though buried for ages, and some presenting the appearance of previous oxida tion purposely induced.' See IRON.

TIPHSAH, a city on the western margin of the Euphrates, forming the north-eastern limit of Solomon's kingdom; probably Thapsacus, afterwards called Amphipolis.

TIRAS, a son of Japhet, is held to have been the progenitor of the Thracians (Gen. x. 2). Thrace was a district on the north of Greece, bounded on the east by the Pontus Euxinus (the Black sea); on the south, by the Propontis and the Egean sea (Archipelago); on the west, by the river Strymon; and on the north, by the mountainous range of Hamus. The river Hebrus ran through the land.

TIRHAKAH, a king of Ethiopia or Cush (See page 440), who made war on Sennacherib when threatening Jerusalem (2 Kings xix. 9. Is. xxxvii. 9). He is the same as Taracos of Manetho, the third king of the 25th dynasty, who, as an Ethiopian monarch, ruled over a part of Egypt. According to Strabo, Tirhakah penetrated to the pillars of Hercules, or Gibraltar. Hitzig fixes his reign 714-696 A. C. This is one of the points in which the history of Egypt coincides with that of the Hebrews.

TIRZAH (H. pleasant), a royal Canaanitish city conquered by Joshua (Josh. xii. 24), which fell to the share of Ephraim, and became the capital of the kingdom of Israel (1 Kings xiv. 17). Zimri, besieged by Omri, destroyed its palace and himself with fire (xvi. 17, 18). The latter, having reigned in Tirzah six years, transferred the seat of empire to Samaria (23, 24). Tirzah, which lay some twelve miles to the east of Samaria, was celebrated for the loveliness of its natural scenery (Cant vi. 4).

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Of

In the Mosaic law, the tithe, or tenth of all the products of the earth, including the field, the orchard, and the garden, with the flock and the herd in general, whatever was eatable-was annually to be paid by every Israelite, as tenant of the land, to its sole proprietor, Jehovah, who appropriated the same to the support of the national religion and worship; and accordingly resigned the wealth thus accruing to the levites in vir. tue of their office, and in consideration of their possessing no share in the land. these tithes, the fruits of the earth might be redeemed by the payment of one-fifth beyond what they were worth, not in the general market, we presume, but in the sanctuary (Lev. xxvii. 30-33. Numb. xviii. 21, seq.). Of these tithes, the levites had to pay a tenth to the priests (Numb. xviii. 26-30. 2 Chron. xxxi. 4-6. Neh. x. 37, 38). In Deuter. xiv. 22-27 (comp. xii. 6, seq.), the tithe is to be enjoyed in a social meal before the sanctuary, in company with the levite, strangers, widows, and orphans; and if the distance at which any one lived was too great to bring the tithe in kind, he was to turn the objects into mouey, and, proceeding to the holy place, expend it at his pleasure for the above-mentioned purposes (xiv. 28; xxvi. 12-14). The same passages require a tithe banquet to be held every third year at each dwelling-place. It may not be easy to reconcile these injunctions, of which the first seems to give all tithes to the levitical order, the second to reserve no small portion of them in the hands of the donor who admits the levite as his guest. Winer holds the latter ordinances to be an expan sion of the original tithe system, designed to favour the levites. This view cannot be sustained, because the levites are not favoured, but the reverse, and because any change made in the original legislation, under the auspices of the sacerdotal order, could hardly fail to have specially promoted their inte

TIT

rests. If, however, we view the enactments as constituting portions of one tithe-law, the current, and tithes would thus be a tenth of several parts may in the main be found conthe annual increase, appropriated to the service of the temple and its servants, as well as to the purposes of hospitality, friendship, and charity Should this view find due sup port, it would, by presenting the tithes as a port, and prove applicable in its fullest imneedy classes, serve to lessen the force of great national provision for the learned and the objection to the Mosaic polity, that, besides other sources of revenue, the levitical order, which probably did not constitute more than one-fiftieth of the nation, yet possessed one-tenth of its annual substance.

Doubtless, with the debasement of the national character, the sacerdotal body, whose power was very great, worked the system for speak of a second and a third tithe (comp. their own aggrandisement. The Talmudists Joseph. Antiq. iv. 8, 22); which, if, as would have been found very oppressive. If, in adappear, they were separate exactions, must dition, a tenth was payable to the regal gohaving also so much of their wealth to part vernment (1 Samuel viii. 15), the Israelites, kinds, purchased at a dear rate the advanwith in connection with offerings of various tages of their social and religions institu tions. See TAXES.

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