formation is not to be rejected because incomplete. Its very rarity enhances its value. Tradition makes Titus bishop of Crete, in which island it states that he died.

The passages referred to above show that Paul held Titus in high esteem, and in regard to their common work stood with him in intimate relations.

Titus, the Epistle of Paul to, professes to have been written by Paul, a servant of God and an apostle of Jesus Christ, to Titus, his own son after the common faith (i. 1-3), at a time when the apostle looked for the second appearance of Christ (ii. 13), and before the time that he had determined to pass the winter at Nicopolis (iii. 12), where, on insufficient grounds, it has been held the letter was written. From the Epistle itself it appears that Paul, having been in Crete and found there much disorder, to which he could not himself apply a remedy, left Titus there in order to finish what he had begun; and to aid him in this arduous office, he wrote to his fellow labourer this Epistle, which, besides giving directions for the selection and appointment of church officers, contains specific exhortations to Titus himself, and through him to the churches in the island (i. 5), bearing immediately on their moral wants, dangers, and duties.

That the object, tone, and tendency of the composition are worthy of Paul, and such as might have proceeded from his pen, cannot be denied, nor ought we to allow the impression in favour of its authenticity thence derived to be rendered faint, still less to be effaced, by our want of materials for confidently setting forth the outward relations under which the Epistle came into exist

ence.

Those outward relations are now hidden in perpetual obscurity. With them, conjecture has been more busy than successful. Lardner thinks that Paul, in his third missionary journey, visited Crete on his leav. ing Ephesus for Macedonia (Acts xix. xx.). Paley, proceeding on the notion, which has no ground in Scripture, that Paul suffered two imprisonments in Rome, advances the supposition that after his liberation in that capital, the apostle took Crete on his way to Asia. Hug assigns the time when Paul, in his second tour, passed from Corinth to Ephesus, fixing on Nicopolis, between Antioch and Tarsus, as the place to which Titus was to come. Credner, thinking that the letter bears in its substance tokens of a later state of mind, denies that it was written by Paul. On the other hand, it may be satisfactorily maintained that the state of opinion, and especially the state of morals implied in it, is such as is known to have anciently prevailed in Crete. See the article.

TOGARMAH, the third son of Gomer, descendant of Japheth (Gen. x. 3). 'They

of the house of Togarmah' (Ezek. xxvii. 14; xxxviii. 6) are placed in Armenia.

TOLA (H. a worm), son of Puah, of the tribe of Issachar, judged Israel, between Abimelech and Jair, during twenty-three years, and was buried at Shamer, in Ephraim, the place of his abode (Judg. x. 1—3).

TOPAZ, the probably correct rendering of the Hebrew pitdah, in Exodus xxviii. 17. Job xxviii. 19. Ezek. xxviii. 13.

TOPHET (H. a drum), the place in the vale of Hinnom, on the south-east of Jerusalem, where children were offered to Moloch, and drums (hence the name) were beaten to drown the cries of the innocent sufferers (2 Kings xxiii. 10. Jer. vii. 31, 32).

TORTOISE, the rendering, in Lev. xi. 29 of the Hebrew tzahv, the meaning of which is not known, on which account Wellbeloved preserves in his Translation the word itself.

TOWN (T. connected with dun, 'a hill' or ascent'), originally a fortified dwellingplace, is a word which, taken in the general sense of a residence of human beings, stands for several Hebrew terms: namely, I. Geer, from a root signifying to surround,' is used of the first city on record-that built by Cain (Gen. iv. 17). II. Kiryah, of similar import (Numb. xxi. 28. Job xxxix. 7). III. Bath, properly daughter' (Gen. xxv. 20), and denoting suburbs or small dependent towns or villages (Josh. xv. 45, 47). IV. Havoth (1 Kings iv. 13), 'hamlets' (Judg. x. 4, marg.; comp. Numb. xxxii. 41). V. Hatzehr, 'a walled town' (Gen. xxv. 16), signifying an enclosed place, hence 'court (Exod. xxvii. 9; xxxv. 17). VI. Prahsohn, from a root meaning that which is broad, open, unconfined, and hence villages or unwalled towns (Judg. v. 7. 1 Sam. vi. 18). VII. Metzorah, a fenced city' or stronghold (2 Chron. xi. 10; xii. 4), such as that exhibited in the ensuing views of Jerusalem, with its hills, valleys, and walls.

The facts here presented show us that human abodes in Canaan were either hamlets, villages, enclosed towns, with, in some cases, their dependencies, or strong and fortified cities. Towns were obviously secure places where the more civilised few took up their abode, and developed their resources under such cover as locality (on eminences) and enclosures might afford them against the yet barbarous or semi-barbarous multitude. In such places also protection was sought against invaders. Originally every town was an enclosure, if not a fortification (Numbers xxxii. 17). Hence places where civilisation is known to have flourished in early periods were strongholds, or protected by strongholds, as Tyre (Joshua xix. 29. 2 Sam. xxiv. 7). Hills were naturally chosen as sites. Palestine afforded in this partcular peculiar opportunities. And the consequent strength of the towns of the Cana

place, though to some extent defined by the nature of the ground on which it stands, has in the lapse of many centuries undergone great changes. At the present day, Oriental towns are in many cases spread over a wide space and contain large open places, such as gardens, orchards, &c. Similar in their ground-plan were Babylon and Nineveh of old. At the gates of a city, the chief place of public resort, where justice was administered and public meetings held, were unoccupied spaces, greater or less in area (Neh. viii. 1, 16. 2 Chron. xxxii. 6. 2 Samuel xxi. 12. Job xxix. 7. Cant. iii. 2. Ezra x. 9). Here were the general markets (2 Kings vii. 1). Besides those at the gate, there may have been other squares, wide places or chief streets (Judg. xix. 15, 17, 20. Gen. xx. 2), also ordinary streets (Jer. xxxvii. 21. Job xviii. 17. Isaiah v. 25). Streets in Eastern towns now are very nar. row; built so, it is said, for the sake of the shelter they thus afford against the burning rays of the sun. If we may judge by those of Jerusalem, the Palestinian streets of old were by no means wide. The streets were for the most part without pavement, and probably always without sewers, so that they were either dusty or dirty (Ps. xviii. 42. 2 Samuel xxii. 43). Streets received their names from some peculiarity (Acts ix. 11), or the goods made or sold in them (Jer. xxxvii. 21). The modern bazaars are streets filled with shops or booths, in each of which are exposed for sale wares of the same kind. Jerusalem, as not itself abounding in fountains, had aqueducts even before the captivity (Is. vii. 3; xxii. 9. 2 Kings xx. 20. Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 3, 2. J. W. ii. 17, 9). Other towns were for the most part supplied

by fountains and wells, of which great care was taken (J. W. iii. 7, 13. See CISTERNS, JERICHO, WATER).

Palestine and its towns underwent enlarge ment and improvement under the Herods, when a considerable Greek population existed in the land, giving rise to theatres, amphitheatres, gymnasia, race-courses, tem ples, and other stately buildings (Joseph. Antiq xvi. 5, 2; xviii. 2, 1, 3; xx. 9, 4). During the invasions, wars, and other causes of change, many towns must in earlier periods have been destroyed (Josh. vi. 24; xi. 11), founded (Judg. i. 26. 1 Kings xvi. 24), restored, enlarged, strengthened, or beauti fied (Judges xviii. 28. i Kings xii. 25; xv. 17. 2 Chron. viii. 5); and in the Roman period, Palestine, in the number and beauty of its towns, bore a comparison with the finest portions of the civilised world; so possible is it for outward splendour and national decay to co-exist! In the time of Joshua, Canaan numbered 600 towns of greater or less dimensions. In the days of Josephus (Life, 45), Galilee alone contained 204. The names of towns, like other names (see the article), were significant; though owing to the different races that inhabited Palestine, it is not always easy to discover the signification. Such as contain Baal in them may be considered as of Canaanite origin, and consequently very old. When towns of the same name existed, they were discriminated by the name of the tribe or district to which they severally belonged. In the time of the Herods, many old towns received new names in honour of distin guished Romans, as Diospolis, Neapolis, Sebaste, Cæsarea, Tiberias; few of which, however, put an end to the old name, which

of the peculiar condition of the church and circumstances of the writers. A tradition of twenty years might, for all great practical purposes, preserve itself in purity. When. in the next twenty years, writing was placed by the side of tradition, the one would authenticate the other, and the result be a higher kind of testimony than each could have exclusively borne (Luke i. 1-4). And the final voice of the church, given by the affixing of its seal to the canon, c'oses and attests the formation of a body of written evidence, superior to any other known in the whole of literary history, because divine. See the articles CANON, EPISTLES, GOSPEL.

The defenders of Jewish tradition trace back its elements to the earliest periods of their national history. Besides the written law, according to their statement, there always was oral instruction, which passed from father to son, was specially in the custody of the priesthood, and, accumulating from age to age, was at length consigned to writing. The admission of the existence of some sort and degree of tradition in the early Jewish church, is not the admission of its trustworthiness. And until we know as a fact what is now only advanced as a probability, we cannot pronounce an opinion either in favour or disfavour of the substance of the alleged tradition; only we may remark that doctrines or facts which, in their passage down through many centuries, have no other vehicle than the changeful one of oral communication, must, if small and simple at the first, become in the course of time so ample and so degenerate as to lose nearly the whole of their value. In the transmission, a learned body or sacerdotal caste would afford no guarantee of purity, especially if their interests could be promoted by the character of the tradition which they transmitted; and the only security against corruption that could exist, would be the light of day and the force of public opinion. But in Judaism the sanctuary was closed to the people, who could exert no influence over a deposit which was held exclusively in the hands of the priests. The written word would, indeed, have some restraint on the undue growth of tradition; but it happened that the Sacred Scriptures became an almost sealed book for the people at large at the very time when tradition began to make head. While in captivity in Baby. lon, the people lost the power to read the Scriptures in their original tongue. A translation became necessary. This translation at the first was made by word of mouth, as the reader recited the Scriptures in the public assembly The ignorance which made a translation necessary, rendered exposition and explanations desirable. These were given viva voce in the congregation. Hence ordinary human elements were mixed with Biblical instructions, and that with almost no power of check or correction from the pepu

lar mind; so that new and corrupt forms of opinion were readily introduced, accompa nied with the sanction of divine truth. In course of time, these Chaldaic interpretations were written down. Two learned Jews, Onkelos and Jonathan, formed them into a body to which was given the name of Targums, and which, besides the Aramaic translation of the sacred text, contain remarks, glosses, and explanations, transmitted from mouth to mouth, and taken down from the lips of public teachers. To this expository collection was given the name Midrash, from a Hebrew term originally signifying 'to seek or 'investigate,' but here, to expound cr 'set forth,' that is, divine truth, which it was held could be found only in the sacred books.

Those who were engaged in these expositions bore the appellation of Midrashites, a kind of learned class, consisting of pupils and teachers, among whom instruction was given chiefly by questions and answers (Luke ii. 46), and with whom the natural quest of novelty, operating in connection with a fixed and limited circle of ideas, led to the utterance and prevalence of opinions forced and unnatural, if not absurd, and to refinements, hair-splitting subtleties, and moral casuistry, which overlaid and sometimes destroyed the divine law, even while affecting to do it bonour (Matt. xv. 3). Traces of these corrup tions are still found in the Mishna, or that portion of the Talmud in which are preserved the traditions of the ancient Midrashites. The Talmud, or oral instruction, is the great national collection of Jewish tradition. It consists of two portions-the Mishna, or text, and the Gemara, or explanation. It is not easy to define the period to which the statements of the Talmud may with safety be referred. The Mishna, as we now possess it, was formed, about 219 A. D., by Jehuda the holy. It treats in six classes, which consist of some sixty pieces, of, I. Prayers and blessings, agriculture, sacerdotal qualities: II. The sabbath, festivals, temple-dues; III. Marriage laws and vows; IV. Duties, criminal procedure, morals, and the authority of the law; V. The temple sacrifices and priestly rights; and VI. Clean and unclean. The Gemara is said to extend down to the fifth century of our era. In the expositions which it offers are incorporated Hebrew fragments, such as narratives, poems, mystical explanations of the powers of letters, &c. There are two Gemaras-the Palestinian or Jerusalem, and the Babylonian.

Among the Midrashites was formed a special class, designated Kabbalists. The earliest Kabbala—that is, revealed mysterieswas a collection of spiritual explanations, which by degrees some of the Midrashites drew from the doctrines of the Chaldee, Persian, Greek, and especially the new Platonie philosophy, and ascribed to the sacred books

as an inner and secret sense. From the Persian philosophy (see PHILOSOPHY) they took the notion of great periodic changes, distinguishing the old and the new age as the world that now is,' and that which is to come' (olam haseh and olam habah). The former was the times of the Old Testament; the latter, the times of the Messiah. This Messianic period the Kabbala found set forth in the laws, histories, usages, and per sons of the sacred writings; and it was its special business to discover the spiritual features of the future world in the outer and verbal import of the Old Testament. As the Kabbalists professed, under Divine guidance, to deal with the hidden sense of the Divine Word, so they had full scope for the indulgence of a prolific imagination, which of necessity tended to abuse. In the lapse of ages this abuse went on growing, until the professors of Kabbalistic skill laid claim to an acquaintance with occult powers in nature and natural bodies, by which they could transmute the baser into the precious metals, and exert an irresistible control over health and sickness, life and death, nay, over good and bad spirits. In earlier times their skill of mind was employed in speculations on the Divine Essence, in which they constructed a species of philosophy which, fantastic as it seems in some of its features, is scarcely less rash and groundless than what sometimes passes as the sober thoughts of Christian divines touching the attributes of God. Borrowing from the Pythagorean school the practice of dissertating on powers attributed to certain numbers, they indulged themselves in speculations in which fancy furnished the text and the love of novelty gave the comment.

The Kabbala comprises three elements, I. the symbolical; II. the dogmatic; III. the speculative or metaphysical. The symbolical furnishes the means of finding in Scripture an inner or mystic sense, different from the literal. It works by three operations: 1, themoura; 2, geometria; 3, notarikon. Themoura (change, permutation) consists in the arbitrary transposition of the letters of a word; or in the substitution of others, so as to form a new term. Sheshach (Jer. xxv. 26), the name of an unknown place, is converted into Babel by a process which con. sists generally in substituting the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet, T, for the first, A; the last but one, Sh, for the second, B; and so forth; and vice versa. Geometria gives exclusive attention to the numerical value of letters, and substitutes one word for another. Thus Mashiah (Messiah) consists in Hebrew of letters inaking in all 358. The same is the case with Mahshah, serpent ; whence it is concluded that the Messiah will overcome or replace the serpent. Notarikon unites the initial or final letters of several words, or considers the letters of a single

word as so many words of which they severally form the commencement. Thus the three letters of the word Adam form the initials of the three words Adam, David, Messiah; which shows that by metempsychosis Adam re-appeared in the persons of David and the Messiah. The dogmatic Kabbala treats of angels and demons, and their different classes; of the several divisions or mansions of paradise and hell; of the transmigration of souls, and other mysteries. The visions of Ezekiel furnished scope for this kind of mythological trifling. There God is exhibited as seated on a throne environed by winged animals (i. 4, seq.), whose figures bear a resemblance to others found on the ruins of Persepolis. These probably are symbolical representations connected with local beliefs. The Kabbalists call Ezekiel's vision Mercava, or chariot, and find in it the court of the celestial King, the throne of God surrounded by angels; with which they have connected their doctrine of good and bad spirits. The stars, the different kingdoms of nature; the elements, men, the virtues and passions of men, are all under the influence of angels. The lower world itself is filled with material genii, of both sexes, who hold a middle position between men and angels. The good angels are under the command of Metatron (from the Greek meta thronon, near the throne'), who is also called Sarhappanim, angel of the divine countenance.' The devils are under the sway of Samael, that is Satan and the angel of death. Besides the transmigration of souls partially received by them, the Kabbalists have another mystery, Ibbour, 'impregnation,' that is, the union of two souls in one body, wrought for the purpose of giving succour and strength. Some of their more imaginative fables call to mind passages in Dante and Milton. The speenÎative Kabbala had for its aim the bringing into harmony monotheism and the act of creation with the fundamental principle of ancient philosophy, Er nihilo nihil fit; From nothing, nothing is made.' All that exists is derived from God, the eternal source of light. God is known only by his manifestations; God not manifested, is a mere abstraction. This God is from all eternity. Hence he is called the ancient of days,' the hidden of the hidden,' also nothing;' and thus the world as created by him came from nothing. This nothing, whence came all things, is unity indivisible and infinite, or En-soph, the cause of causes. The primal light of God-nothing filled all space; it is space itself; every thing virtually was in it; but to manifest itself it must create, that is, unfold itself by emanation. It therefore withdrew within itself in order to cause a void, which afterwards it gradually filled by light which varied in brilliancy, and as it receded from the centre, became more and more imperfect.

of the peculiar condition of the church and circumstances of the writers. A tradition of twenty years might, for all great practical purposes, preserve itself in purity. When,

in the next twenty years, writing was placed by the side of tradition, the one would authenticate the other, and the result be a higher kind of testimony than each could have exclusively borne (Luke i. 1-4). And the final voice of the church, given by the affixing of its seal to the canon, c'oses and attests the formation of a body of written evidence, superior to any other known in the whole of literary history, because divine. See the articles CANON, EPISTLES, GOSPEL.

The defenders of Jewish tradition trace back its elements to the earliest periods of their national history. Besides the written law, according to their statement, there always was oral instruction, which passed from father to son, was specially in the custody of the priesthood, and, accumulating from age to age, was at length consigned to writing. The admission of the existence of some sort and degree of tradition in the early Jewish church, is not the admission of its trustworthiness. And until we know as a fact what is now only advanced as a probability, we cannot pronounce an opinion either in favour or disfavour of the substance of the alleged tradition; only we may remark that doctrines or facts which, in their passage down through many centuries, have no other vehicle than the changeful one of oral communication, must, if small and simple at the first, become in the course of time so ample and so degenerate as to lose nearly the whole of their value. In the transmission, a learned body or sacerdotal caste would afford no guarantee of purity, especially if their interests could be promoted by the character of the tradition which they transmitted; and the only security against corruption that could exist, would be the light of day and the force of public opinion. But in Judaism the sanctuary was closed to the people, who could exert no influence over a deposit which was held exclusively in the hands of the priests. The written word would, indeed, have some restraint on the undue growth of tradition; but it happened that the Sacred Scriptures became an almost sealed book for the people at large at the very time when tradition began to make head. While in captivity in Babylon, the people lost the power to read the Scriptures in their original tongue. A translation became necessary. This translation at the first was made by word of mouth, as the reader recited the Scriptures in the public assembl, The ignorance which made a translation necessary, rendered exposition and explanations desirable. These were given viva voce in the congregation. Hence ordinary human elements were mixed with Biblical instructions, and that with almost no power of check or correction from the popu

lar mind; so that new and corrupt forms of opinion were readily introduced, accompanied with the sanction of divine truth. In course of time, these Chaldaic interpretations were written down. Two learned Jews, Onkelos and Jonathan, formed them into a body to which was given the name of Targums, and which, besides the Aramaic translation of the sacred text, contain remarks, glosses, and explanations, transmitted from mouth to mouth, and taken down from the lips of public teachers. To this expository collection was given the name Midrash, from a Hebrew term originally signifying to seek' or 'investigate,' but here, to expound' or 'set forth,' that is, divine truth, which it was held could be found only in the sacred books.

Those who were engaged in these expositions bore the appellation of Midrashites, a kind of learned class, consisting of pupils and teachers, among whom instruction was given chiefly by questions and answers (Luke ii. 46), and with whom the natural quest of novelty, operating in connection with a fixed and limited circle of ideas, led to the utterance and prevalence of opinions forced and unnatural, if not absurd, and to refinements, hair-splitting subtleties, and moral casuistry, which overlaid and sometimes destroyed the divine law, even while affecting to do it ho nour (Matt. xv. 3). Traces of these corruptions are still found in the Mishna, or that portion of the Talmud in which are preserved the traditions of the ancient Midrashites. The Talmud, or oral instruction, is the great national collection of Jewish tradition. It consists of two portions-the Mishna, or text, and the Gemara, or explanation. It is not easy to define the period to which the statements of the Talmud may with safety be referred. The Mishna, as we now possess it, was formed, about 219 A. D., by Jehuda the holy. It treats in six classes, which consist of some sixty pieces, of, I. Prayers and blessings, agriculture, sacerdotal qualities: II. The sabbath, festivals, temple-dues; III. Marriage laws and vows; IV. Duties, criminal procedure, morals, and the authority of the law; V. The temple sacrifices and priestly rights; and VI. Clean and unclean. The Gemara is said to extend down to the fifth century of our era. In the expositions which it offers are incorporated Hebrew fragments, such as narratives, poems, mystical explana tions of the powers of letters, &c. There are two Gemaras-the Palestinian or Jerusalem, and the Babylonian.

Among the Midrashites was formed a special class, designated Kabbalists. The earliest Kabbala-that is, revealed mysterieswas a collection of spiritual explanations, which by degrees some of the Midrashites drew from the doctrines of the Chaldee, Persian, Greek, and especially the new Platonie philosophy, and ascribed to the sacred books