thofe felfish and narrow-hearted people, whofe whole praife is, that they do no harm, are not to be reckoned upon as members of fociety, but are mere cyphers in the creation. Such fordid difpofitions as will admit no thought of any thing but felf, can never be fit for any place in that more extenfive future fociety, which will be compofed wholly of beings enobled and perfected by virtue and univerfal benevolence: For in that higher ftate, every individual will be connected with the whole, and the whole with every individual: fo that there will be no detached or feparate beings. This fhews the neceffity of our becoming habituated to confider ourselves as parts of the whole, and of enlarging our minds by an extenfive benevolence. This alfo fhews the ftrange abfurdity of making retirement from fociety, in the active time of life, a part of religion; as by that unnatural and monstrous practice one third part of our duty is wholly cut off, and the human mind, which ought by all poffible methods to be drawn and engaged to fociety, is detached and feparated from it, and habituated to think with horror of the very ftate for which it was formed.

Affection to our neighbour will prevent our injuring him, and incline us to do him the utmoft juftice, first as to his fortune or poffeffions. I begin with this, as that part of our neighbour's concerns, which is of the the leaft confequence; intending to proceed afterwards to those which touch more nearly. Now the foundation of property is in reafon or rectitude; that is to say, That a perfon may in fuch a manner come to be poffefled of a portion of the good things of life, that he may have an exclufive right to it against all mankind; fo that for any other to deprive him of fuch poffeffion against his confent, would be iniquitous. As the infinite Author of all things has an unquestionable title to all creatures and things in the univerfe, it is evident, that he may, in the courfe of his providence, give to any man the poffeffion of any of the good things of life; and what He gives cannot without injuftice be, by any private perfon, forcibly or clandeftinely taken away. At the fame time, the general confent of fociety, or the law

of

of the country in which a perfon lives, may, for wife and generally beneficial purposes, render property otherwife rightful, not tenable, and may make all things common, except where the Divine law has abfolutely prohibited alienation, as in matrimony. In a country, where exclusive property is eftablished and fupported by law or mutual agreement, a right to valuable poffeffions may come first by birth. It is plainly agreeable to reason, that a parent provide for his own offspring, preferably to ftrangers. The natural affection of even the inferior creatures for their young, leads to this. By the fame rule, all fucceffions among perfons related by marriage or blood, are equitably and legally established; and it becomes injuftice to deprive any one of property fo acquired. The fruits of a perfon's ingenuity, or labour, are alfo lawful property. Purchafe is the giving what one had a right to, for fomething which belonged to another, and therefore purchafe gives a juft right. Free gift, from one who has power to give, makes a just title. In things which have been claimed by no one, the firft poffeflion gives a title, as in the cafe of unhabited countries. To feize a country by force of arms, to the prejudice of the original inhabitants, is a flagrant injuftice. For as the first entrance into an uninhabited country, being by the direction of Providence, gives the first discoverers a title to it, it is evident, that no perfon can, without violating the laws of juftice, difturb the firft poffeffors in their property, or pretend to a fettlement in that country, but by agreement with the firft poffeffors.

I do not think it neceffary to my purpose to determine, with the utmost exactness, the boundaries of property, or how far one perfon may lawfully encroach upon another's right. Whoever fincerely loves his neighbour with the fame measure of affection as himself, will be as tender of his property as he would with others to be of his own; and whoever refolves to regulate his conduct according to rectitude, will be more delicately fearful of breaking in upon another's right, than of lofing part of his own; and with the utmoft reafon : For in violating his neighbour's right, he becomes guilty before God; whereas in lofing his own, the worft confequence is, his

(Book III. being deprived of what is of no great value in itself, and which he muft foon leave behind him.

Whatever practices tend to the violation of any perfon's juft property, they are all contrary to the affection we ought to entertain for our neighbour, and to ftrict rectitude, Whether fuch practices are openly violent, or more indirect and concealed, the confequences being the fame, the vice is the fame; unlefs where increased or diminished by circumftances of greater or less aggravation. Thus, receiving or concealing the property of another, whether ftolen, robbed, or found, if the proprietor is known, or affifting or countenancing another in fuch practices, is the fame injury to our neighbour as direct theft.

The most extenfive and ruinous violation of property; is that which is committed by thofe fcourges and curfes of this lower world, Tyrants. When one of thofe furies, the difgrace and horror of the human species; breaks loose upon mankind, a whole kingdom is robbed, a quarter of the world is plundered. And in that day, when all differences of rank will be at an end, dreadful in that day will be the charge against those who, being by Divine Providence raised for the general happiness of mankind, have used their power only to spread extenfive misery and distress among God's creatures.

Whoever is by the Divine Providence raised to a station of power and influence, and takes the advantage of his power to opprefs his inferiors, fhews himself not only unjuft, but cowardly: For true greatnefs of mind fcorns any unfair advantage. And if it be unjust to appropriate to one's felf what belongs to another, however able he may be to bear the lofs, much more cruel and bafe is it for the rich to avail themselves of their power to the diftreffing of their poor tenants or dependents. What will add but a fmall matter to the already overgrown wealth and fuperfluous ftate of the powerful landlord, wrung from the poor induftrious farmer, reduces him, and his numerous family, to the extremity of diftrefs. And that heart muft have little feeling, that would not spare a fuperfluous dish, or a needlefs bottle, rather than a family of half a dozen fellow-creatures hould want bread,

I know

I know of no oppreffion in this happy country, of fuch great and extenfive bad confequence, as that occafioned by the abufe of law: The grievance of which is fo much more calamitous, as the very intention of the law is the redrefs of grievances. It is notorious, that it is in the power of any rafcally pettifogger to keep a whole town in fear, and to ruin as many as he pleases of the poor and induftrious part of the inhabitants, who are, without doubt, collectively confidered, the most valuable part of the people: And the judge upon the bench must fit and fee fuch wicked practices, without having it in his power to give any relief to an unhappy fubject, who is ftripped, and his family beggared, to fatisfy a voracious blood-fucker; and all under pretence of equity. One fingle regulation would at once put a ftop to this whole complaint, viz. A law, by which in all cafes of profecution about private concerns, if one of the parties chofe to fubmit the cause to arbitration, the other should be obliged to ftand to the award. The moft judicious and prudent set of men in the nation, I mean the merchants, find this the most amicable, equitable, and frugal manner of deciding difputes about property, and generally use it. And it were to be wished that it were univerfal; which it is to be hoped the abominable iniquity of the law will at last bring about.

The ancient maxim, that the rigour of the law is the height of injuftice, is undoubtedly true. And whoever is ready to take all advantages of his neighbour, which the law, ftrained to its utmoft ftrictnefs, will give him, fhews himself (fo far from loving his neighbour as himfelf) to be of a disposition to plunder his neighbour for his own advantage in the moft iniquitous manner, if he could but at the fame time keep himself fafe; and that it is not the love of juftice and of his neighbour, but fear of punishment, that restrains him from the most notorious violation of property by theft or robbery.

If by borrowing money, or buying goods upon credit, knowing one's felf to be in no condition to pay, while the perfon he deals with believes him fit to be trufted, if by fuch means as thefe one may as much in

jure

jure his neighbour's eftate, as by open violence or theft, it is evident that all fuch proceedings are highly unjuft. Every man has a right to know the truth in all cafes which concern himfelf: And whoever conceals from his neighbour a truth, which, if he had known, he would have acted another part than he did, is the cause of all the lofs he may fuffer by fuch tranfaction. Yet nothing is more common than for traders to borrow large fums a very few days before their becoming infolvent. In which, befides the injustice, the abuse of friendship and confidence greatly aggravates the iniquity.

It is lamentable to obferve how little regard is too generally paid to fuch promifes as people think themfelves not legally liable to be compelled to the performance of. Breaking promises is violating facred truth. And withholding from a perfon what one has abfolutely promifed him, fuppofing it ftill in his power to perform his promife, is depriving him of what he has a right to claim which is in effect a violation of property. Ef pecially in the cafe of a dependence upon a promife given, by which the expectant is difappointed, and greatly injured. This is direct injuftice, falsehood, and cruelty. Nor does the confideration of an unexpected expence, which the fulfilling of the promise may occafion, bring any excufe for violating it. All that was to have been confidered beforehand, and accounted upon, before you gave your promife. At the fame time a generous man will quit his right to what has been promifed him, when he finds, that the promiser cannot, without confiderable detriment, fulfil his engage

ment.

To withhold a juft debt, though the creditor fhould not have it in his power to recover it by law, is equally unjuft, as in the cafe of its being recoverable. The intention of the law of bankruptcy is to give unfortunate debtors an opportunity of doing juftice to their creditors. Therefore he, who takes the advantage of his being cleared by the ftatute of bankruptcy, and refufes to make complete payment of his whole debts, when it comes afterwards to be in his power, is guilty of the

fame